UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT    LOS  ANGELES 


,.,  SOUTHERN  BRANCH, 
UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA, 

LiBRARY, 

IU>S  ANGELES.  CALIF. 


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Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2007  witii  funding  from 

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littp://www.arcliive.org/details/colombiacommerciOOunitiala 


DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE 

BUREAU  OF  FOREIGN  AND  DOMESTIC  COMMERCE 


SPECIAL  AGENTS  SERIES— No.  206 


COLOMBIA 


A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK 


BY 

P.  L.  BELL 

Trade  Commissioner 


PRICE,  70  CENTS 

Sold  by  the  Superintendent  of  Dociunents,  Government  Printing  Office, 
Washington,  D.  C. 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1921 


(J  ^  ^^  tw  ' ' 


CONTENTS 


Page. 

Letter  of  submittal ., 13 

Introduction 15 

General  economic  position,  past  and  present 15 

European  versus  American  trade  with  Colombia 16 

Language 17 

Currency 17 

Weights  and  measures 18 

Postage 19 

Telegraph,  cable,  and  wireless  service 21 

Geography,  topography,  and  climate 23 

Geographic  position 23 

Area  and  boundaries 23 

Summary  of  topographical  conditions  and  their  effect 24 

Topographical  features,  divisions,  and  characteristics 25 

Western  Cordillera 26 

Central  Cordillera 26 

Eastern  Cordillera ; 26 

River  systems 27 

Goajira  Peninsula 29 

Climate  and  rainfall 30 

Climatic  zones 30 

Climate  of  the  Caribbean  coast 31 

Climate  of  the  interior.* 32 

Effect  on  trade  of  climatic  variations 33 

Climate  of  the  ' '  llanos  " 33 

Population  and  living  conditions 34 

Statistics  of  population 34 

Racial  characteristics  of  the  people 35 

Inhabitants  of  Caribbean  coast  regions 35 

'  Inhabitants  of  Pacific  coast 38 

•  Inhabitants  of  the  interior 38 

Importance  of  racial  considerations  from  a  commercial  standpoint 40 

Living  conditions 40 

Sanitation  and  health 42 

Sanitary  measures  at  Santa  Marta  and  Sincerin 43 

Menace  of  malaria  and  efforts  to  combat  it 43 

Yellow-fever  epidemics— Conditions  at  Buenaventura  and  Cartagena. .  44 

Sanitary  and  hygienic  measures  by  individuals 45 

Health  conditions  in  the  interior 45 

Improvements  under  way  or  contemplated 46 

Travel  outfit,  clothing,  etc , 46 

Tuberculosis 47 

Education  in  connection  with  hygiene 47 

Government,  education,  and  national  finance. 48 

Government 48 

Legislative  branch 48 

3 


4  CONTENTS. 

Government,  education,  and  national  finance — Continucf.. 

Government — Continued.  Page. 

Executive  branch t8 

Judicial  branch 1 

Military  force 49 

Consular  and  diplomatic  corpa — Foreign  representatives  ai  Col        .^. .  50 

Constitution • 50 

Taxation  and  revenues 51 

Codes  of  law 51 

Education 52 

Public  school  sj'stem 52 

Influence  of  young  men  with  ^Vmerican  training 53 

Educational  statistics 53 

Higher  education 54 

Character  of  periodicals — General  cultural  position  of  Colombia 56 

National  finances 55 

History  of  Colombian  finances  and  banking 56 

Present  condition  of  currency  and  Government  finance 58 

Financial  difficulties  of  the  Government — Internal  loans 60 

Bank  loans 61 

Financial  conference 61 

Failure  of  foreign  loans  during  the  war 62 

Outline  of  fiscal  condition 63 

External  debt ." 65 

Internal  debt 69 

General  conditions  affecting  national  industries V3 

Forest  products 76 

General  survey  of  resources 76 

Medicinal  plants 77 

Quinine 77 

Ipecac 78 

Sarsaparilla 78 

"Balsam  of    copaiba"  and  "balsam  of  Tolu " 79 

Other  medicinal  plants  and  products 80 

Resins,  vegetable  waxes,  and  varnishes 80 

Oilseeds  and  palm  kernels 81 

Coconuts 82 

Tanning  barks  and  extracts .*  83 

Chicle , 85 

Rubber 87 

Tagua  (vegetable  ivory) 89 

Indigo 92 

Hardwoods  and  cedar 92 

Government  revenue  from  forest — Export  statistics , 94 

Mining 96 

Introduction 96 

General  description  of  mining  in  Columbia 97 

Copper  mines 101 

Goldmines 102 

Principal  companies 102 

Area  of  gold  production 103 

Platinum  mining 105 

Area  of  platinum  production .* 106 

Formations 107 

Methods  employed  in  the  industry 107 


CONTENTS.  5 

Mining — Continued. 

Platinum  mining — Continued^  Page. 

Foreign  dredging  companies 108 

Trading  methods  and  prices 108 

Shipments  of  platinum  to  United  States 109 

Coal  deposits 109 

Mineral  exports  from  Colombia  as  a  whole 113 

Metal  exports  from  Barranquilla 115 

Metal  exports  from  Cartagena 115 

Metal  exports  from  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco 116 

Mining  laws — Possession  of  claims  and  titles 116 

General  provisions 116 

,               Mines  in  Government  lands 117 

Mines  outside  of  Government  lands 117 

Manner  of  acquiring  mining  property  in  Colombia 118 

Taxes  on  mining  property 119 

TiOgal  extent  of  claims 119 

Petroleum 120 

Introduction ]  20 

Regions  in  which  oil  is  found 121 

Surface  indications 121 

Difficulties  of  prospecting 122 

Topography  and  geology  of  the  oil  districts 123 

Caribbean  coast  region 123 

Cauca-Sinu  region 124 

Santander  formations 125 

Oil-land  concessions  and  developments  in  the  past 126 

Martinez  interests — Standard  Oil  Co 126 

Armella-De  Mares  concession  east  of  Cartagena 127 

De  Mares  concession  in  Santainder — Work  of  Tropical  Oil  Co 128 

Stimulation  of  interest — Miscellaneous  activities 130 

De  Barco  concession  in  Norte  de  Santander 130 

Oil-land  titles  and  legislation 131 

Conditions  in  Spanish  colonial  times 131 

From  establishment  of  independence  to  1919 132 

Recent  legislation  and  present  status 134 

Summary  of  petroleum  prospects 135 

Operating  costs  and  labor  conditions 136 

Cattle  raising 138 

Resum6  of  general  conditions 138 

Varied  character  of  the  industry 139 

Opportimity  for  foreign  capital  in  cattle  raising 141 

Market  for  serums,  condition  powders,  etc 143 

Colombian  exports  of  live  stock  and  animal  products -....  143 

Method  of  trading  in  hides  and  skins 147 

Live-stock  breeding 147 

Hog  raising 148 

Dairying — Imports  of  cheese  and  butter 149 

Agriculture 151 

Introduction 151 

Topographic  and  climatic  agricultural  divisions 152 

Products  of  various  zones ,.  153 

R(''STim6  of  conditions 154 

Opportunities  for  development — Future  prospects 155 

Land  titles  and  land  laws 156 


6  CONTENTS. 

Agriculture — Continued.  Page. 

Necessity  for  large  investment 158 

Increase  in  prices  of  agricultural  products 158 

Colombia's  exports  of  vegetable  products *. *158 

Cacao 160 

Rice 1G2 

Tobacco 1G4 

Coffee 166 

Importance  of  coffee  situation  as  indicating  sales  possibilities ....  166 

Effect  on  trade  conditions 167 

Export  statistics 168 

Quality  of  Colombian  coffee 168 

Regions  of  production — Grades,  prices,  shipments,  etc 168 

Increased  benefit  to  small  producers 172  ' 

American  purchases  of  Colombian  coffee 172 

Conditions  determining  prosperity  of  industry 173 

Market  for  agricultural  implements  and  machinery 175 

General  methods  of  conducting  agricultural  operations 175 

Tools  and  implements  employed 176 

Prospective  market  for  gasoline  motors  and  equipment 177 

Colombian  imports  of  agricultural  implements  and  machinery 178 

Necessity  of  proper  packing  and  explicit  instructions 178 

Domestic  manufacturing 180 

Statistics  of  industrial  enterprises 180 

Opportunity  for  expansion 180 

Panama-hat  making  and  exportation 181 

Bags  and^  sacks — Colombian  fiber  resoiu-ces 182 

"Fique"  and  "pita"  fibers  and  their  uses 182 

Imports  of  jute  and  bags 184 

Economic  value  of  native  fibers 184 

Economic  characteristics  of  nine  commercial  districts 185 

Introduction:  Necessity  for  treating  each  district  separately 186 

Santa  Marta  and  commercial  district 187 

Location  of  city — Climate — Population 187 

Commercial  region  tributary  to  Santa  Marta ,. . .  ,    187 

Living  conditions — Public  utilities 188 

Import  trade — Stocks  carried 189 

Manufacturing 190 

Agriculture 190 

Kshing 191 

Mineral  deposits 191 

Forest  resources 192 

New  industries  and  water-power  development 193 

Supply,  quality,  and  wages  of  labor 193 

Banking 193 

Possibilities  of  trade  development 194 

Harbor  and  docks 195 

Railway  service  and  proposed  extensions 1 96 

Barranquilla  district.  Department  of  Atlantico,  and  Magdalena  River 197 

Location  of  territory 197 

Climate  and  rainfall 198 

Population  and  living  conditions , 198 

Schools — I^bor  conditions 199 

Agriculture  and  live  stock 199 

Coal  and  petroleum  resources 200 


CONTENTS.  7 

Economic  characteristics  of  nine  commercial  districts — Continued. 

Barranquilla  district — Continued.  Page. 

Manufacturing — Banking 200 

Public  utilities.. 201 

New  suburb  for  Barranquilla — Hotel  accommodations 201 

Harbor  facilities  at  Puerto  Colombia 202 

Barranquilla-Puerto  Colombia  Railway 202 

Magdalena  River  route  to  the  interior 203 

Volume  of  import  business  at  Barranquilla 208 

Cartagena  and  commercial  district 209 

Location  and  topography 209 

Climate  and  rainfall 210 

Population  and  living  conditions 210 

Education 211 

Characteristics  and  trade  relations  of  business  men 211 

Increasing  demand  for  new  goods 212 

Business  methods — Handling  of  imports  and  exports  by  Syrians 212 

Commercial  territory  of  Cartagena 213 

Highway  transportation  and  road  construction 214 

Importance  of  the  "Dique" 214 

Present  railway  equipment  and  proposed  construction 215 

Harbor  and  port  facilities 216 

Water  transportation  by  way  of  Sinu  and  Atrato  Rivers 217 

Ocean  and  Magdalena  River  freight  service 218 

Agriculture 218 

t-     Immigration  needed — Labor  laws ' 222 

Forest  products  of  region  west  of  Cartagena 222 

Petroleum 224 

Platinum  and  gold  mining 224 

Manufactming 225 

Exports 226 

Currency  and  banking 226 

Medellin  and  commercial  district 226 

Location,  topography,  and  climate 226 

Population  and  racial  characteristics 227 

Living  conditions >. 228 

Education 228 

Finance  and  banking 229 

Principal  cities  and  commercial  territory 231 

Manufacturing 232 

Railways 236 

River  navigation 237 

Agricultiu*e 237 

Cattle  raising 238 

Mining 239 

Merchandise  most  in  demand  in  Medellin 239 

Methods  of  distribution 240 

Bogota  and  commercial  district 240 

Location,  area,  and  population 240 

Topography,  climate,  and  rainfall 241 

Racial  characteristics  of  inhabitants , 242 

Education 242 

Living  conditions  in  Bogota 242 

Public-utility  service  in  Bogota 243 

Banks  and  insurance  companies. 243 


8  CONTENTS. 

Economic  characteristics  of  nine  commercial  districts — Continued. 

Bogota  and  commercial  district — Continued.  Page. 

Transportation  between  Bogota  and  the  coast 244 

Freight  traffic  on  Magdalena  River 244 

Dorada  Extension  Railway 245 

Girardot  Railway .' 245 

Sabana  Railway 246 

Distribution  of  goods  from  Bogota 246 

Northern  and  Southern  Railways 247 

Tolima  Railway 247 

Proposed  new  railway  between  Ibague  and  Ambalema ,  248 

Agriculture 248 

Live-stock  industry 250 

Mining 250 

Manufacturing 252 

Volume  of  trade 253 

Trade  methods 254 

Importance  of  care  in  packing 254 

Position  of  American  as  compared  with  European  goods 255 

Manizales  and  commercial  district 255 

Geographic  position  and  area 255 

Topography ". 256 

Climate  and  rainfall 256 

Population,  racial  characteristics,  and  living  conditions 257 

General  economic  factors 257 

City  of  Manizales * 258 

Education 258 

Publications 258 

Banking 258 

Principal  cities  and  commercial  territory 260 

Volume  of  business 260 

Manufacturing 261 

Transportation 262 

Departmental  finances 265 

Agriculture 265 

Mining 267 

Trade  conditions  and  development  methods 268 

Cali  and  commercial  district 268 

Location  and  topography 268 

Climate  and  rainfall 269 

Area,  population,  and  schools 270 

Economic  resources  and  development 270 

Departmental  finances 271 

Cali  and  its  commercial  radius 271 

Pacific  Railway 272 

Navigation  on  Cauca  River 273 

Road  and  trails 274 

Cattle  raising 1. 274 

Agriculture 275 

Manufacturing 275 

Coal  deposits 276 

Port  of  Buenaventura 277 

Buenaventura  as  distributing  center  for  northern  mining  regions 278 

Gold  and  platinum  pro<luced  in  southern  Choco  territory 278 

Volume  of  business  at  Buenaventura 279 


CONTENTS.  9 

Economic  characteristics  of  nine  commercial  districts — Continued. 

Cali  and  commercial  district — Continued.  Page. 

Customs  revenue 279 

Parcel-post  imports 280 

Banking  facilities  in  CaU — Chamber  of  commerce 280 

Advertising  mediums  and  methods 281 

Future  of  American  trade  vrith  Cali  district 281 

Commercial  district  of  Tumaco 282 

Bucaramanga  and  commercial  district 285 

Location,  topography,  and  climate 285 

Area,  population,  and  schools 286 

Volume  of  trade 286 

Trade  distribution  and  methods 287 

Trade  routes 287 

Puerto  Wilches-Bucaramanga  Railway 288 

Banking 288 

Agriculture  and  live  stock 289 

Chicle  industry 289 

Attempt  to  introduce  silk  culture 289 

Cucuta  and  commercial  district 290 

Location  and  general  characteristics 290 

Area,  population,  and  climate : 290 

'  Appearance  and  public  utilities  of  Cucuta 290 

Commerce  and  trade 291 

Means  of  communication 293 

Transportation 295 

Railways " 295 

Previous  experiences  and  present  opportunities  in  railway  building. .  295 

Contemplated  line  from  Pacific  coast  to  Bogota 296 

Railway  laws 298 

Statistics  of  operation  of  all  Colombian  railways 300 

River  navigation 301 

Public  highways 301 

Principal  roads — Technical  conditions  governing  construction 301 

Recent  road  legislation 302 

Highway  projects  of  National  Government 303 

.          Work  by  departmental  governments 305 

«         National  revenue  for  roads 307 

Market  for  road-building  machinery 307 

Market  for  motor  vehicles 308 

Foreign  trade 311 

Introductory  review 311 

Conditions  affecting  establishment  of  closer  relations  with  United  States. .  312 

Growth  of  foreign  trade 313 

Statistics  of  commerce  in  a  normal  year 313 

Prewar  trade  conditions 315 

Conditions  after  the  war 316 

Statistics  of  commerce  in  1918 318 

Position  of  United  States  in  Colombian  trade 320 

Customs  tariff  and  import  duties 321 

Introduction :  General  considerations 321 

Development  of  present  tariff  system 323 

Customs  duties  and  charges 323 

Surtax 324 

.  Customs  charges 324 


10  CONTENTS. 

Customs  tariff  and  import  duties — ^f^ontinued.  Page. 

Customs  procedure 325 

Consular  requireanents 325 

Necessity  of  care  in  filling  out  invoices. 325 

"To  order"  shipments 325 

Manifests 326 

Appraisement  and  fines .• 326 

Liquidation  and  payment  of  duties 327 

Appeals 327 

Exemption  from  duty 327 

Temporary  admission 328 

Parcel-post  imports • 328 

Internal  revenue  and  river  tax 329 

Trade-marks  and  patents 331 

Banks  and  banking 333 

List  of  native  and  foreign  banks : . . .  333 

Commercial  effect  of  American  branch  banks  in  Colombia 334 

Former  banking  conditions  and  recent  progress 334 

Banking  laws  of  Colombia 334 

Opportunity  for  new  bank  at  Tumaco 336 

Practice  of  handling  bills  of  exchange  with  Colombia 337 

Insurance.  ..^ 339 

Commercial  practices  and  requirements 341 

Agencies 341 

Importance  of  export  commission  houses  in  Colombian  trade 342 

Direct  factory  representation 343 

General  conditions  affecting  trade  methods 343 

Advantages  of  trade  with  United  States — Outlook  for  future 344 

Advantage  of  proximity 344 

Necessity  for  adequate  shipping  facilities  and  careful  handling  of 

goods 345 

Study  of  special  needs  and  conditions — Attention  to  detail 345 

Credit  information 346 

Education  in  packing  for  export — Cooperation  between  manufacturers 

and  exporters 346 

Marking  of  samples 347 

Buying  seasons — Importance  of  information  on  conditions 347 

Protection  of  wholesaling  importers 348 

Essentials  for  retention  of  American  trade 349 

Parcel-post  trade  with  Colombia 350 

Credit  terms 352 

Loans  as  trade  factors 354 

Letters  to  consuls,  trade  commissioners,  and  Colombian  firms 355 

Catalogues 357 

Samples 357 

Effective  methods  of  advertising 358 

Aliens — Naturalization — Immigration 360 

Markets  for  specific  classes  of  merchandise 362 

Textiles .• 362 

Domestic  textile  indxistry 362 

Relative  position  of  foreign  textiles  in  Colombian  market 362 

Exclusive  brands — Protection  of  large  importers 364 

Class  and  quality  of  textiles 365 

Statistics  of  imports 365 

Packing  of  textiles  for  Colombia 368 

Commercial  practices  in  textile  trade 368 


CONTENTS.                                       •  11 

Markets  for  specific  classes  of  merchandise — Continued.  Page 

Drugs,  medicines,  and  other  chemicals 368 

Use  and  packing  of  chemicals 369 

Statistics  of  imports 370 

Paper  and  paper  products 371 

\        Construction  materials  and  machinery — P'umiture 373 

Appendixes: 

A.  Requirements  to  be  observed  in  shipping  goods  to  Colombia 375 

Steamship  lines 375 

Bills  of  lading 375 

Colombian  consular  requirements 375 

Mistakes  to  be  avoided 377 

B.  Proper  packing  for  shipments  to  Colombia 378 

Relation  of  packing  to  customs  duties 378 

Effect  of  incorrect  packing  methods 378 

Necessity  of  implicitly  following  instructions " 379 

Export  houses  and  factories 380 

Advantages  of  proper  packing 380 

Packing  specifications  for  Colombia 381 

Use  of  fiber  cases 386 

Specific  examples  of  unsatisfactory  American  packing 386 

Importance  of  marking 387 

Cargo  handling  by  steamship  companies  and  others 388 

Handling  of  goods  in  Colombia 388 

Mule  transport 388 

C.  Regulations  and  practices  affecting  commercial  travelers 390 

Passports — Powers  of  attorney 390 

Licenses 390 

Customs  treatment  of  samples 390 

Miscellaneous 391 

D.  Travel  notes 393 

Santa  Marta  to  Barranquilla 393 

Caribbean  coast  to  Puerto  Berrio 394 

Condition  of  river ^ 394 

Steamers  and  service 394 

Equipment  for  river  travel 395 

Department  of  Antioquia 395 

Hotel  Magdalena 395 

Town  of  Puerto  Berrio 396 

Antioquia  Railway :  Nus  Division 396 

La  Quiebra  Pass 396 

Ba^age 397 

Antioquia  Railway :  Porce  Division 398 

Amaga  Railway 398 

Kinds  of  clothing  needed 399 

Interior  travel 399 

Trails 400 

Health  conditions 401 

Medellin  to  Bogota 401 

Distances  to  be  traversed 401 

Time  necessary  for  journey 401 

Services  of  baggage  agencies 402 

Interdepartmental  customs  inspection 403 

Precautions  against  pilferage 403 


12  CONTENTS. 

Appendixes — Continued. 
.    D.  Travel  notes — Continued, 

Medellin  to  Bogota — Continued.  Page. 

Details  of  the  trip:  Medellin  to  Puerto  Berrio 403 

Magdalena  River,  Puerto  Berrio  to  La  Dorada 403 

Rail  journey  from  La  Dorada  to  Beltran 404 

Magdalena  River,  Beltran  to  Girardot 405 

Rail  journey  from  Girardot  to  Bogota 406 

Bogota 406 

Travel  outfits 407 

Magdalena  River  to  Manizalea 407 

Start  from  Mariquita 407 

Equipment 408 

The  trail 408 

Cost  of  trip 409 

Manizalea  to  Cali 409 

Distances  covered  and  time  consumed 409 

Manizales  to  Pereira 409 

Pereira  to  Cartego 410 

Cartago  to  Buga  la  Grande 410 

Ride  by  automobile  to  Palmira 411 

Pacific  Railway,  Palmira  to  Cali 411 

Equipment  for  trip 411 

Steamer  service  on  Cauca  River 412 

Conditions  at  Cali 412 

E.  Monographs  and  trade  lists  relating  to  Colombia 413 

Department  of  Commerce  monographs 413 

Trade  lists  available 413 

Index 415 

ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Page. 

Fig.  1.  National  Capitol  of  Colombia  at  Bogota facing  1 

2.  Government  building,  Santa  Marta facing  36 

3.  Santa  Marta  Railway  Co. 'a  shops  and  wharves  at  Santa  Marta.  .facing  37 

4.  Plaza  San  Nicolas,  Barranquilla  (Banco  Mercantil  at  right). . .  .facing  90 

5.  Street  scene,  Ban^nquilla facing  91 

6.  River  boats  and  dugouts  at  water  front,  Barranquilla facing  91 

7.  General  view  of  Cartagena facing  162 

8.  Steamers  on  Magdalena  River facing  163 

9.  Map  of  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena  regions 197 

10.  Map  of  Medellin  region 227 

11.  Medellin  station  of  Antioquia  Railway facing  236 

12.  Medellin  station  of  Amaga  Railway facing  236 

13.  Plaza  Berrio,  Medellin facing  237 

14.  Hotel  Magdalena,  Puerto  Berrio facing  237 

15.  Map  of  Bogota  and  Manizales  regions 241 

16.  Calle  Real,  Bogota facing  242 

17.  School  of  Mathematics  and  Engineering,  Bogota facing  243 

18.  Map  of  Cali  region 269 

19.  Map  of  Bucaramanga  region 285 

20.  Map  of  Cucuta  region 291 

21.  Parque  de  Bolivar,  Manizales facing  296 

22.  Train  on  Pacific  Railway,  Buenaventura  to  Cali facing  297 

23.  Steamer  on  Cauca  River facing  297 

Map  of  Colombia inside  back  cover 


LETTER  OF  SUBMITTAL. 


Department  of  Commerce, 
BuBEAU  OF  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce, 

Washington,  Ajjril  15,  1921. 
Sir:  There  is  submitted  herewith  a  handbook  of  the  Repubhc  of 
Colombia,  by  P.  L.  Bell,  a  trade  commissioner  of  this  Bureau.  The 
information  presented  in  it  was  obtained  by  Mr.  Bell  during  the  course 
of  a  thorough  and  comprehensive  personal  investigation  in  the  coun- 
try. It  is  believed  that  American  business  men  who  are  interested 
in  selling  merchandise  to  Colombia,  purchasing  its  products,  or  in- 
vesting in  its  enterprises  will  derive  substantial  benefit  from  a  study 
of  the  data  appearing  in  the  pages  of  this  book. 

This  is  one  of  a  series  of  handbooks  on  South  American  countries 
to  be  issued  by  the  Bureau.  One  entitled  ''  Paraguay:  A  Commercial 
Handbook,"  by  Trade  Commissioner  W.  L.  Schurz,  has  recently  been 
published,  and  another,  on  Bolivia,  will  soon  come  from  the  press. 
Trade  Commissioner  Bell,  the  author  of  the  present  monograph  on 
Colombia,  is  preparing  a  handbook  of  similar  character  on  the  neigh- 
boring Republic  of  Venezuela. 
Respectfully, 

C.  E.  Herring, 
Acting  Director  of  Bureau. 
To  Hon.  Herbert  Hoover, 

Secretary  of  Commerce, 

13 


COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 


INTRODUCTION. 

GENERAL  ECONOMIC  POSITION,  PAST  AND  PRESENT. 

Possessing  the  unique  distinction  among  the  countries  of  South 
America  of  having  a  coast  Une  on  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific 
Oceans,  Colombia  is  also  the  nearest  of  the  South  American  Republics 
to  the  United  States,  Occupying  a  large  territory  (sixth  in  area  in 
South  America)  in  the  northwestern  part  of  the  continent,  Colombia 
lies  at  the  very  gates  of  the  Panama  Canal,  the  country's  geographical 
position  being  the  most  favorable  for  commerce  of  any  m  South 
America.  It  has  a  coast  line  of  about  465  miles  on  the  Pacific  Ocean 
And  of  about  640  miles  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  distance  from 
Cartagena  to  New  York  is  only  1,900  nautical  miles  (as  compared 
with  4,500  miles  to  Liverpool)  and  to  Colon  at  the  Panama  Canal 
only  266  miles  by  sea. 

Possessing  also  a  great  variety  of  natural  resources,  and  occupying 
third  place  in  population,  Colombia  was,  at  one  time,  the  best  known 
country  in  South  America  and  the  foremost  in  development.  It  Avas 
the  richest  colony  of  Spain  in  South  America,  Cartagena  being  the 
principal  seaport  of  the  continent  during  the  early  colonial  period. 
When  the  sovereignty  of  Spain  was  cast  ofiF  more  than  -a  century  ago, 
great  predictions  were  made  concerning  the  achievements  for  which 
the  country  was  destined,  and  Colombia  became  very  well  known  to 
Europe,  receiving  the  attention  of  scientists  and  business  men  who 
understood  its  potentialities. 

For  various  reasons,  these  hopes  of  development  and  progress 
have  not  been  realized  to  the  fullest  extent.'  The  country  has  been 
neglected  by  foreign  capital  and  iipmigration  and  has  been  outdis- 
tanced by  other  nations  of  the  continent.  But,  even  under  unfavor- 
able conditions,  progress  in  commerce  and  industrv  has  been  con- 
stant, showing  a  steady  modern  development;  and  during  the  last 
15  years  the  country  has  entered  upon  a  new  epoch  of  economic 
activity  in  which  the  exploitation  of  rich  natural  resources  in  cattle 
and  sugar-cane  lands,  coal  deposits,  and  petroleum  bodies,  and  the 
increase  in  production  of  such  products  as  cojffee,  bid  fair  to  make  the 
development  of  Colombia  rival  that  of  Argentina  and  Mexico  in  the 
near  future. 

Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  the  United  States,  Colombia's 
commercial  and  intellectual  intercourse  in  the  past  was  mainly  with 
Europe.  With  few  exceptions,  such  development  of  transportation 
and  resources  as  was  carried  out  in  the  country  was  effected  with 
European  capital,  and  European  influence  predominated  in  the  busi- 
ness life  of  the  country  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  World  War.  The 
United  States  has  been  for  many  years  the  principal  market  for 

15 


r 


^ 


r. 


16        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Colombian  exports  of  coffee,  hides,  etc.,  but  this  trade  connection 
did  not  create  a  full  reciprocity  in  exchange  of  products  between  the 
two  countries. 

Conditions  brought  about  by  the  war  have  changed  these  factors 
very  much — so  much  that,  from  buying  goods  in  the  United  States 
of  necessity  during  the  war,  Colombian  merchants  are  taking  on 
permanent  lines  of  American  goods  and  the  business  element  of  the 
country  is  looking  to  the  United  States  as  a  source  of  capital  with 
which  to  develop  natural  resources,  transportation,  and  badly  needed 
public  utilities,  as  well  as  domestic  manufacturing  industries.  During 
and  immediately  following  the  war  there  were  increasing  visits  of 
Colombian  merchants  to  the  United  States,  where  thev  became  better 
acquainted  with  American  manufactures  and  products  and  with 
American  business  methods.  Colombia  was  very  little  known  in  the 
United  States  prior  to  the  war,  but  this  better  acquaintance,  com- 
bined with  the  prosperous  condition  of  Colombia,  is  rapidly  bringing 
about  a  widespread  knowledge  which  will  surely  result  in  still  greater 
intercourse  and  the  cementing  of  mutual  interest.  A  very  important 
factor  in  this  development  of  better  relations  will  be  the  interest  now 
being  taken  by  American  capital  in  the  countrj^'s  natural  resources  of 
petroleum  and  coal,  which  will  certamly  be  followed  by  aid  in  the 
construction  of  badly  needed  means  of  communication,  leading,  in 
turn,  to  stni  further  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country  in 
the  interior. 

Comparatively,  Colombia's  commerce  is  not  large  at  the  present 
time,  but  its  growth  has  been  steady  in  the  past  and  great  strides 
have  been  made  during  the  last  few  years.  The  new  spirit  of  the 
country,  stimulated  by  prosperity  and.  increased  wealth,  will  inevi- 
tably result  in  industrial,  educational,  and  civic  growth,  and  the  last- 
ing commercial  and  business  friendships  now  being  formed  with  the 
United  States  will  certainly  bring  a  large  and  increasing  trade,  which 
should  be  fostered  in  every  way. 

EUROPEAN  VERSUS  AMERICAN  TRADE  WITH  COLOMBIA. 

Europe  knew  and  valued  this  trade  with  Colombia  for  many  years, 
and,  though  the  United  States  took  the' bulk  of  Colombia's  exports, 
less  than  50  per  cent  of  Colombia's  total  imports  of  foreign  merchan- 
dise came  from  the  United  States  prior  to  the  war.  In  1915  Colombia 
purchased  52  per  cent  of  its  imports  in  the  United  States;  in  1916,  55 
per  cent;  in  1917,  56  per  cent;  while  in  1918  it  is  estimated  that  the 
United  States  furnished  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  total  imports, 
this  percentage  amounting  to  more  than  $11,000,000.  Of  Colom- 
bian exports  the  United  States  took  78  per  cent  in  1915,  88  per  cent 
in  1916,  90  per  cent  in  1917,  and  93  per  cent  in  1918.  It  may  be 
predicted  that,  when  statistics  for  1919  are  available,  the  percentage 
of  imports  purchased  in  the  United  States  during  that  year  will 
surpass  previous  percentages.  During  1919  buying  in  the  United 
States  was  very  brisk  on  account  of  the  favorable  coffee  situation 
in  Colombia  and  the  continued  disruption  of  industry  in  Europe. 

In  considering  the  future  aspects  of  Colombian  trade  with  the 
United  States,  one  must  remember  the  long  years  of  commercial 
association  with  Europe,  during  which  connections  became  estab- 
lished on  a  basis  of  mutual  xmderstanding  and  acquaintanceship, 


INTEODUCHON.  17 

and  the  fact  that  there  is  no  background  of  the  past  upon  which  to 
base,  to  any  such  extent,  Colombia's  trade  with  the  United  States. 
Colombian  merchants  appreciate  the  treatment  long  received  from 
Europe,  and,  since  the  war  has  given  them  the  opportunity  of  know- 
ing both  markets,  the  future  volume  of  trade  with  the  United  States 
wul  depend  upon  the  ability  of  the  American  manufacturer  and  ex- 
porter to  meet  European  competition  when  conditions  return  to 
normal  and  to  foster  the  trade  by  means  of  a  closer  study  of  Colom- 
bian commercial  conditions  and  necessities  and  an  endeavor  to  cement 
personal  relations  in  every  way  possible. 

The  United  States  possesses  the  great  advantage  of  closer  prox- 
imity to  Colombia  (the  market  centers  of  Eiu-ope  being  nearly  two 
and  one-half  times  farther  than  the  American) ,  and  also  the  important 
advantage  of  being  the  best  market  for  Colombia's  exports — an  im- 
portant factor  on  which  to  base  future  trade  relations. 

The  principal  factors  in  determining  the  volume  of  the  future  trade 
of  Colombia  with  the  United  States  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  The  ability  of  the  United  States  to  continue  to  provide  rapid 
and  cheap  means  of  ocean  transportation  to  and  from  Colombian 
ports.  This  also  implies  ability  to  increase  this  ocean  transport 
service  to  meet  the  growing  needs  of  Colombian  commerce. 

2.  The  ability  to  furnish  credits  and  provide  a  system  to  take  care 
of  the  financing  of  Colombia's  trade,  both  export  and  import — this 
being  necessary  on  account  of  the  limited  capital  available  in  Colombia 
in  proportion  to  the  country's  resources.  An  important  determining 
factor  will  also  be  the  abihty  and  willingness  to  furnish  the  capit^ 
and  credit  for  the  development  of  transportation  and  public  improve- 
ments. 

3.  Last,  but  not  least,  the  willingness  on  the  part  of  American 
manufacturers  to  study  the  needs  and  conditions  of  the  country 
(separating  it  into  the  different  commercial  districts  formed  by  the 
topography  of  the  interior),  to  pay  more  attention  to  detail,  and  to 
foster  friendly  relations  to  the  maximum  extent. 

LANGUAGE. 

The  language  of  Colombia  is  Spanish.  Many  business  men  under- 
stand English,  however,  and  there  is  an  increasing  desire  on  the  part 
of  the  younger  element  to  learn  English.  All  business  correspondence 
should  be  in  Spanish  unless  otherwise  indicated.  A  knowledge  of 
Spanish  is  necessary  for  the  transaction  of  general  business  in  the 
country  and  is  indispensable  for  the  salesman  traveling  in  Colombia. 

CURRENCY. 

Colombia  is  on  a  gold-standard  basis,  and  its  monetary  system  is 
modeled  upon  those  of  England  and  the  United  States,  the  unit  being 
the  gold  coin  (of  5  dollars)  naving  the  same  weight  and  fineness  as  the 
English  sovereign.  One  hundred  cents  make  a  dollar,  equal  in  value 
to  one-fifth  of  the  pound  sterling,  or  $0.9733  United  States  currency.^ 

1  The  actual  exchange  rate  of  the  Coloinbian  gold  dollar,  in  terms  of  United  States  currency,  since  the 
beginning  of  1919  has  been  given  as  follows  by  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  United  States  Treasury  Depart- 
ment: Jan.  1,  1919,  $1.15;  Apr.  1,  1919,  $1.08;  July  1,  1919,  $0.91;  Oct.  1,  1919,  $1.01;  Jan.  1,  1920,  $1,015 
Apr.  1,  1920,  $0.9615;  July  1,  1920,  $0.9733;  Oct.  1,  1920,  $0.8333;  Jan.  1,  1921,  $0.87;  Apr.  1,  1921,  $0.84. 

37558°— 21 2 


18         COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  coins  are  the  5-dollar  gold  piece  called  the  "Condor,"  the  10-dollar 
gold  piece  called  the  "Condor  Doble,"  the  50-cent  silver  coin  or  half 
dollar,  the  20-cent  silver  coin,  the  10-cent  silver  coin,  and  the  5-cent 
nickel  piece.  There  is  also  the  1-cent  copper  coin  called  the  "  centavo." 
Of  paper  money  there  are  5  and  10  dollar  bills  of  the  National  Govern- 
ment in  general  circulation,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  notably 
around  Bogota,  another  form  of  paper  is  in  circulation,  known  as 
"c6dulas  hipotecarias,"  these  being  mortgage  notes  issued  by  certain 
banks  in  denominations  of  1,  2,  5,  10,  20,  and  50  dollars.  A  new  de- 
cree in  1919  made  English  paper  money  legal  tender  and  acceptable 
by  the  customhouses,  but  this  act  was  not  well  received  by  the  gen- 
eral public  and  the  English  paper  moixey  could  not  be  put  into  circu- 
lation except  at  a  heavy  discount  of  30  per  cent. 

In  June,  1919,  another  decree  made  American  gold  coin — at  that 
time  coming  into  the  country — acceptable  at  par  with  Colombian  and 
English  gold  coin  at  the  customhouses,  the  effect  being  to  put  Ameri- 
can gold  coin  into  general  circulation  throughout  the  country  at  par 
with  Colombian  and  English  gold  coin,  although  the  American  gold 
coin  is  worth  intrinsically  about  14  cents  more  on  every  5  dollars. 
At  the  present  time  there  is  no  tangible  reserve  behind  the  Govern- 
ment issues  of  paper  currency,  and  there  is  a  shortage  of  paper  circu- 
lating medium  which  has  been  met  with  several  expedients.  No 
banks,  at  present,  have  the  right  to  issue  paper  currency  other  than 
the  "mortgage  notes"  mentioned. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEAwSURES. 

The  metric  system  is  in  general  use  and  is  the  legal  standard  for 
Colombia.  However,  many  of  the  old  Spanish  Colonial  units  are 
still  commonly  used  throughout  the  country.  The  old  Spanish 
"arroba"  (25  pounds)  is  common. 

Freight  in  the  interior  is  reckoned  by  "cargas,"  or  the  usual  load 
for  a  pack  mule — variously  estimated  at  250  to  300  pounds,  the  most 
usual  "carga"  being  280  pounds,  in  two  packages.  A  certain  fixed 
sum  per  "bulto,"  or  package,  is  charged,  all  packages  for  animal 
transport  being  of  necessity  more  or  less  uniform  in  size  and  weight. 

Textiles  are  sold  by  the  meter  measurement  and  also  by  the  "  yard  a" 
or  yard  of  36  inches,  this  latter  being  the  basis  upon  which  these 
goods  are  purchased  in  foreign  markets  and  the  price  calculated  for 
domestic  sale. 

Other  commodities  of  small  volume,  such  as  lard,  rice,  etc.,  are 
sold  on  the  "pound"  basis,  the  pound  being  made  up  of  500  grams  or 
half  a  kilo. 

Coffee,  the  largest  export  of  the  country,  is  purchased  from  the 
producer  on  the  basis  of  "  cargas"  of  two  sacks  each  weighing  65  kilos 
or  143  pounds  net  weight.  Prices  for  export  coffee  are  quoted  in 
pounds,  American  standard. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  weights  and  measures  used  in 
Colombia,  with  their  equivalents: 

COLOMBIAN   LAND   MEASUREMENT. 

1  fanegada=6,400  square  meter8= 10,000  square  vara8=1.9768  acres. 
1  hectare= 10,000  square  meters=  15,626  square  vara8=2.471  acres. 
1  vara=80+  centimeter8=31+  inches. 
100  vara8=80+   meters. 


.  INTBODUCnON.  19 

UNEAR,  DBY,    AND   LIQUID   MEASURES. 

1  vara=0. 83591   linear  meter. 

1  square  vara=0. 69875  square  meter. 

1  cubic  vara=0. 58409  cubic  meter. 

1  botella=0.70  liter  (liquid). 

1  abnude=0.791  liter  (dry). 

GOLD    AND    PLATINUM    WEIGHTS. 

1  Colombian  pound  ("libra")  of  16  ounce8=2  marcos. 
1  marco=50  castellanos. 
1  ca8tellano=8  tonines. 
1  tonine=12  "granos"  (grains). 
16  Colombian  ounce8=460.093  grams  (metric). 
1  pound  (Engli8h)=453.598  grams  (metric). 

1  pound    (troy)=373.240   grams    (metric)=81    castellanos    +    12   grains 
("granos"). 

In  Colombia  it  has  become  customary  to  give  500  "gramos,"  or 
grams,  for  a  pound  instead  of  figuring  460  grams,  to  be  exact.  All 
scales  and  balances  are  in  the  metric  system,  and  merchants  estimate 
prices  over  the  counter  on  the  500-gram  basis  when  selling  lard,  sugar, 
coffee,  chocolate,  and  the  like. 

As  regards  the  weights  used  for  buying  platinum  and  gold,  it  can 
readily  be  seen  that  the  employment  of  the  above  system,  handed 
down  by  the  Spaniards,  is  very  much  to  the  advantage  of  the  traders 
who  sell  at  United  States  standards,  the  gain  being  something  like 
20  per  cent,  on  a  rough  average. 

POSTAGE. 

The  postal  administration  of  Colombia  having  agreed  to  put  in 
effect,  commencing  February  1,  1921,  pending  ratification,  the  pro- 
visions of  the  special  postal  convention  concluded  at  Madrid  in 
November,  1920,  between  the  Americas  and  Spain,  the  announce- 
ment has  been  made  that  on  and  after  the  date  named  the  United 
States  domestic  rates  will  apply  to  letters  and  post  cards,  as  well  as 
to  newspapers  and  periodical  publications  of  the  second  class  (1 
cent  for  each  4  ounces  or  fraction  thereof),  addressed  for  delivery  in 
Colombia,  while  the  domestic  rates  of  that  country  will  apply  to 
articles  addressed  for  dehvery  in  the  United  States  in  all  cases  where 
such  domestic  rates  are  less  than  the  international  rates. 

Effective  on  the  date  above  named,  the  maximum  weight  limit 
for  newspapers,  other  printed  matter,  and  commercial  papers  will 
be  8  pounds  12  ounces  (4  kilos),  while  the  maximum  weight  limit 
for  single  volumes  of  printed  books  will  be  1 1  pounds  (5  kilos) ;  and 
the  maximum  dimensions  for  this  class  of  mail  matter  in  the  form  of 
a  roll  will  be  40  inches  in  length  and  6  inches  in  diameter. 

Another  provision  of  this  convention  requires  the  full  prepayment 
of  all  mail  matter  except  letters,  which,  however,  are  required  to  be 
prepaid  at  least  one  rate  (2  cents). 


20        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  Colombian  domestic  postal  rates  were  increased  in  April,  1918, 
as  follows : 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Letters:  For  each  15  grams  (approximately  ^  oTmce)  or  fraction . .  0. 03 

Post  cards: 

Single 02 

Double 03 

Printed  matter:  For  each  50  grams  (If  ounces)  or  fraction 01 

Documents: 

For  first  100  grams  (3^  ounces) 03 

For  each  100  grams  excess 02 

Samples: 

For  first  100  grams  (3^  ounces) 03 

For  each  50  grams  excess 02 

Registry  fee 15 

Post-ofiice  boxes:  Yearly  rental 7.  50 

City  rates: 

Letters 01^ 

Post  cards 01^ 

Special  delivery 09 

Foreign  mail: 

Letters:  For  each  15  grams  or  fraction 05 

Registry  fee 15 

The  distribution  of  mail  throughout  the  country  is  often  slow  and 
attended  with  difficulties  on  account  of  the  frequently  interrupted 
navigation  of  the  rivers,  which  are  the  principal  highways  into  the 
interior,  and  the  necessity  of  lon^  routes  in  the  mountainous  interior 
where  mail  is  carried  on  pack  animals  and  is  exposed  to  bad  weather 
conditions. 

There  is  a  parcel-post  service  with  the  United  States  and  also  in 
the  interior  oi  the  country.  This  means  is  being  used  to  a  rapidly 
increasing  extent  for  sending  small  lots  of  high-class  merchandise 
between  the  United  States  and  Colombia,  and  the  increase  in  the 
maximum  weight  limit  of  parcel-post  packages  from  5  kilos  (11 
pounds)  to  the  present  maximum  of  10  kilos  (22  pounds),  effective 
early  in  1919,  caused  an  extraordinary  increase  in  imports  by  parcel 
post  into  Colombia  from  the  United  States,  it  being  estimated  that 
up  to  September,  1919,  the  business  was  eight  times  as  large  as  in 
previous  years. 

Parcel-post  rates  are  fixed  between  the  United  States  and  Colombia 
by  the  Parcel  Post  Convention  of  January  19,  1889,  which  allows 
extra  charges  on  matter  from  the  United  States  that  do  not  obtain 
in  the  case  of  European  countries.  The  parcel-post  rates  from  the 
principal  countries  are  as  follows  (based  on  the  old  maximum  weight 
of  5  kilos,  or  11  pounds) : 

Colombian 
dollars. 

United  States 1.  32 

United  Kingdom 1.  45 

France -. 1.  28 

Germany .- 1.  28 

Italy 1.  54 

Spam 70 

The  rate  of  70  cents  from  Spain  was  jfixed  by  special  agreement  in 
1916  and  applies  to  the  Caribbean  coast  only.  Packages  from  Spain 
to  the  Pacihc  coast  of  Colombia  pay  1  dollar. 

Besides  postage,  parcel-post  shipments  are  subjected  to  the  follow- 
ing extra  charges:  Import  duty;  2  per  cent  for  "conversion  fund;" 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

5  per  cent  for  road  tax;  5  per  cent  for  consular  invoice;  "corretaje" 
or  "brokerage";  a  charge  for  appraisal;  and  a  municipal  tax.  The 
municipal  tax  amounts  to  10  cents  on  each  package  and  the  "broker- 
age" to  a  flat  rate  of  5  cents  for  each  package  from  European  coun- 
tries but  to  5  cents  for  each  460  grams  of  weight  and  1  cent  for  each 
115  grams  or  4  ounces  of  excess  if  the  package  is  from  the  United 
States. 

There  are  more  than  700  post  offices  in  Colombia. 

TELEGRAPH,  CABLE,  AND  WIRELESS  SERVICE. 

The  country  is  fairly  well  served  by  telegraph  lines  which  are  owned 
and  operated  by  the  Government.  There  are  more  than  500  tele- 
graph offices,  with  20,000  kilometers  (12,000  miles)  of  lines  in  opera- 
tion. These  lines,  in  many  places,  traverse  long  stretches  of  rough 
and  sparsely  inhabited  country,  and  communication  is  often  inter- 
rupted by  noods  and  storms,  which  damage  the  wires.  The  equip- 
ment is  antiquated  and  is  being  improved  by  the  installation  of 
duplex  instruments  at  the  principal  cities. 

Kates  per  word  for  domestic  service  are  divided  into  various  classi- 
fications, as  follows:  "Ordinary  messages,"  2  cents;  "urgent  mes- 
sages," 4  cents;  "extraordinary  messages,"  8  cents;  foreign-language 
messages  (not  Spanish)  or  codes,  double  rates;  press  messages  of 
general  interest,  1  cent.  The  name  of  the  addressee,  the  address, 
and  the  signature  are  charged  for,  the  words  all  counting.  Each 
figure  used  is  counted  as  one  word;  for  example,  the  number  69 
would  be  charged  for  as  two  words.  No  charge  is  made  for  place  of 
sending  or  for  the  date — all  other  matter  counting  in  the  charges. 
There  is  no  reduced  rate  for  night  service. 

"Extraordinary"  messages  take  precedence  over  all  other  messages 
except  Government  communications.  Next  come  those  of  me 
"urgent"  class,  and  last  of  all  the  "ordinary"  telegrams,  which,  if 
the  distance  should  be  great  and  the  press  of  business  at  that  par-' 
ticular  office  heavy  at  the  time,  might  not  be  sent  for  a  week  or  more. 
During  1919,  when  business  in  the  country  became  active,  the  tele- 
graph system  of  the  country  between  commercial  centers  became 
madequate  and  business  was  hampered  and  delayed. 

One  wireless  station  that  was  used  for  commercial  work  at  Carta- 
gena was  dismantled  during  the  war,  as  it  belonged  to  a  German 
company.  The  Marconi  Co.  has  a  contract  to  install  at  Barranquilla, 
within  two  years'  time,  a  large  wireless  station  with  a  range  as  far 
as  Habana.  Another  large  wireless  station  will  be  installed  by  the 
same  company  at  Bogota  to  afford  rapid  communication  witn  the 
interior.  The  United  Fruit  Co.  maintains  a  wireless  station  at  Santa 
Marta,  with  communication  as  far  as  Colon  and  Bocas  del  Toro  in 
Panama. 

On  October  24,  1920,  service  was  inaugurated  on  the  direct  cable 
connecting  Cartagena  with  Colon.  Cartagena  had  previously  been 
connected  with  the  outside  world  by  means  of  land  telegraph  to  the 
cable  station  at  Buenaventura  on  the  west  coast  of  Colombia,  thence 
by  cable  through  Panama  to  the  United  States.  The  average  length 
of  time  required  for  the  transmission  of  messages  under  these  condi- 
tions was  about  five  days.     The  opening  of  the  new  cable  gives 


22 


COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


Cartagena  direct  connection,  and  messages  ordinarily  require  but  one 
day  for  transmission  to  the  United  States. 

The  Central  &  South  American  Cable  Co.  has  an  ojfTice  at  Buena- 
ventura, the  cable  rates  from  that  port  being  as  follows: 


Groups  (In  United  States). 


Connecticut 

Mississippi 

New  York- Washington 

Alabama '. 

Kansas 

California 


Cost  per 
word. 


Cenlt. 
60 
52 
53 
56 
59 
62 


Countries. 


British  Columbia 

Montreal 

Mexico 

Germany 

Austria 

Spain 

England 

France 


Costper 
word. 


Centt. 
52 
65 
43 
65 
72 
80 
65 
66 


GEOGRAPHY,  TOPOGRAPHY,  AND  CLIMATE. 

GEOGRAPHIC  POSITION. 

The  Republic  of  Colombia  lies  between  latitudes  12°  24'  N.  and 
4°  17'  S.  and  between  longitudes  66°  7'  and  79°  W.  Certain  of  the 
salient  features  of  its  geographic  position  have  already  been  men- 
tioned, at  the  beginning  of  the  "Introduction." 

The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  makes  it  possible  to  steam  from 
Buenaventura,  the  principal  seaport  of  Colombia  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  through  the  canal  to  Cartagena  and  Puerto  Colombia,  on  the 
Caribbean,  in  less  than  four  days,  thus  enabling  transportation  to  be 
effected  between  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  Caribbean  coast  of  the 
country  in  much  less  time  than  it  would  take  to  proceed  through  the 
interior,  which  is  very  broken.  The  extension  of  the  Pacific  Railway 
(Buenaventura-Cali)  to  Bogota  will  give  the  country  the  full  advan- 
tage of  its  geographical  position  and  cause  the  importance  of  the 
Pacific  coast  territory  to  become  equal  to  that  of  the  Caribbean  coast. 

In  normal  times  and  with  fairly  equal  steamer  service,  goods  ordered 
from  the  United  States  can  be  received  within  30  days  from  date  of 
order  as  compared  with  three  months  (ordinarily)  from  Europe, 
With  delivery  service  and  terms  of  credit  important  factors  in  inter- 
national commerce,  trade  between  Colombia  and  the  United  States 
has  a  great  advantage  on  account  of  the  proximity  of  the  two  coun- 
tries. The  distance  from  Puerto  Colombia  and  Cartagena  (the  former 
the  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  River,  which  is  the  highway 
into  the  interior  of  Colombia)  to  New  Orleans  is  only  about  1,300 
miles,  and  easy  and  quick  access  is  thus  afforded  to  the  gateway  of 
the  rich  and  productive  centers  of  the  American  Middle  West. 

AREA  AND  BOUNDARIES. 

The  total  area  of  Colombia  can  only  be  given  approximately, 
as  certain  boundaries  are  in  dispute.  The  various  estimates  give  the 
total  areas  as  431,000,  440,846,  466,000,  and  as  high  as  476,000 
square  miles. 

The  official  figures  of  the  Colombian  Government  in  1912  gave  the 
total  area  of  the  country  as  463,155  square  miles,  not  including  the 
territory  of  the  Choco  Intendency,  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  land 
along  the  Atrato  River  in  the  west-coast  section  of  the  country. 
These  figures  were  obtained  from  the  totals  of  the  areas  of  the  various 
political  divisions  of  the  country,  of  which  there  are  14  Departments 
or  States,  three  Intendencies,  and  one  Territory.  The  total  of 
463,155  square  miles  included,  however,  the  area  of  the  present 
Republic  of  Panama,  estimated  at  31,917  square  miles.  The  Choco 
Intendency  is  much  smaller  than  Panama,  probably  covering  less 
than  20,000  square  miles. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  form  an  idea  of  the  relative  size  of 
Colombia,  it  may  be  added  here  that  the  country  is  equal  in  area  to 
the  States  of  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  from  Maine  to 

23 


24        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Florida  with  the  addition  of  Ohio  and  West  Virginia.  It  is  larger 
than  Germany  and  France  together. 

Colombia  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Caribbean  Sea;  on  the 
east  by  Venezuela,  whose  territory  extends  as  far  south  as  the 
headwaters  of  the  Rio  Negro,  one  of  the  northern  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon;  on  the  southeast  by  Brazil,  on  the  south  by  Peru  and 
Ecuador;  and  on  the  west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  the  Republic  of 
Panama. 

The  Caribbean  coast  of  Colombia  extends  from  the  boundary  line 
with  Panama  (west  of  the  Bay  of  Uraba)  as  far  to  the  east  as  the 
Gulf  of  Maracaibo.  The  Pacific  coast  line  extends  from  the  boundary 
with  Panama  (at  Kellev  Inlet)  as  far  to  the  south  as  Panguapi  Bay 
on  the  Ecuadorian  bord,er. 

SUMMARY  OF  TOPOGRAPHICAL  CONDITIONS  AND  THEIR  EFFECT. 

The  prominent  topographical  features  of  Colombia  are  (1)  the 
Andean  Mountain  System,  divided  into  three  main  ranges  running 
from  north  to  south  and  united  at  the  boundary  with  Ecuador,  these 
ranges  being  known  as  the  Western  Cordillera,  the  Central  Cordillera, 
and  the  Eastern  Cordillera;  (2)  the  high  group  of  mountains  in  the 
northeastern  part  of  the  country,  lying  between  the  Goajira  Peninsula 
and  the  Magdalena  River  Valley  and  known  as  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Range;  (3)  the  high  table-land  of  Bogota,  in  the  eastern-central 
part  of  the  country  along  the  western  side  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera; 
and  (4)  the  great  "llanos"  or  plains  of  the  southeastern  part  of  the 
country,  which  extend  from  the  line  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  to  the 
east,  southeast,  and  south  and  comprise  the  watersheds  of  the  Orinoco 
and  Amazon  Rivers,  being  in  area  much  larger  than  the  mountainous 
and  inhabited  part  of  the  country. 

The  great  plains  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  watersheds  are  not 
inhabited  except  by  small  tribes  of  savage  Indians,  the  Colombian 
people  living  on  the  level  coast  lands,  in  the  river  valleys  of  the 
mterior,  or  m  the  more  favored  regions  of  the  high  mountains. 

The  moimtains  are  the  dominating  factor,  affecting  all  conditions 
of  life  and  commerce.  Transportation  is  made  extremely  difficult 
and  costly,  and  this  has  hindered  the  amalgamation  of  the  nation. 
This  concution  has  divided  the  country  into  several  regions,  each  one 
different  from  the  others  in  respect  to  climate,  products,  racial  tend- 
encies, and. commercial  needs.  A  separate  study  of  each  region  is 
therefore  necessary  when  one  is  making  a  commercial  survey  of 
Colombia.     (Seep.  185.) 

Commercially,  the  inhabited  part  of  Colombia  is  divided  by  geo- 
graphical barriers  into  five  main  regions,  which  may  be  roughly 
designated  as  follows : 

Caribbean  coast  country. — A  tropical,  low-lying  coast  region,  dry 
and  semiarid  from  the  Peninsula  of  Goajira  as  far  as  Santa  Marta, 
with  the  rainfall  and  vegetation  increasing  from  BarranquUla  and 
Cartagena  until  the  region  of  the  Atrato  River  is  reached,  where 
extreme  tropical  conditions  prevail  and  the  rainfall  is  as  heavy  as 
anywhere  in^  the  Tropics,  being  equal  to  that  of  Panama. 

Defartment  of  Antioguia. — Occupying  the  central-northern  part  of 
the  country,  entirely  mountainous  in  character  and  including  tropical 
climate  to  the  north,  where  the  low  coastal  plain  is  readied,  and 


GEOGRAPHY,   TOPOGRAPHY,   AND   CLIMATE.  25 

temperate  climate  in  the  interior  at  elevations  over  5,000  feet  above 
sea  level. 

Central  plateau,  Bogota. — A  region  having  a  large  extent  of  level 
land  on  a  nigh  plateau,  situated  in  the  eastern-central  part  of  the 
country  just  to  the  west  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  of  the  Andes. 

Pacific  coast  section. — ^Mountainous  in  the  south  from  the  boundary 
with  Ecuador  to  the  Cauca  Valley  and  also  along  the  Pacific  coast 
near  the  ocean.  This  territory,  or  division,  may  be  said  to  include 
the  western  slopes  of  the  Central  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  in  the 
central-western  part  of  the  country  (considering  the  area  as  a  whole) 
and  also  the  level  and  rich  agricultural  valley  of  the  Cauca  River 
from  Cali  to  Cartago,  in  the  Department  of  El  Valle.  Another  sub- 
division of  the  Pacific  coast  territory  is  that  of  the  valley  of  the 
Atrato  River  to  the  north,  extending  as  far  as  the  Caribbean  Sea 
at  the  Bay  of  Uraba  or  Gulf  of  Darien. 

Eastern  section. — Embracing  the  territory  between  the  Magdalena 
River  Valley  and  the  Venezuelan  border  and  north  of  the  high  table- 
land of  Bogota.  This  region  is  tropical  and  very  mountainous  and 
includes  the  district  of  the  town  of  Cucuta,  which  lies  near  the 
Venezuelan  border  and  exports  via  Lake  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela, 
having  no  important  commercial  connection  with  the  rest  of  Colombia. 

TOPOGRAPHICAL    FEATURES,    DIVISIONS,    AND    CHARACTERISTICS. 

It  is  apparent  that  Colombia  presents  three  maiu  di\dsions  for 
study — namely,  the  coast  regions;  the  great  mountainous  interior, 
with  its  river  valleys,  plateaus,  and  mountains;  and,  last,  the  low- 
lying,  level  eastern  and  southeastern  territory,  which  may  be  again 
subdivided  into  the  ''llanos"  or  ''pampas"  of  the  northern  part, 
consisting  of  open,  grassy  plains,  cut  by  numerous  shallow  rivers, 
and  the  southern  part  covered  by  impenetrable  tropical  forests  called 
the  "selvas,"  populated  only  by  savage  tribes  of  Indians  and  very 
inadequately  explored. 

In  addition  to  the  three  main  ranges  of  the  Andes  mentioned,  one 
finds  in  the  northern  part  of  Colombia,  near  the  Caribbean  Sea,  the 
great  mountain  group  called  the  Sierra  Nevada,  geographically  inde- 
pendent of  the  Andean  System  and  running,  in  general,  east  and 
west.  First  there  are  the  low  hills  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  and  then 
to  the  west,  back  of  Santa  Marta,  the  great  Sierra  Nevadas,  which 
ascend  from  the  sea  to  snow-capped  peaks  as  high  as  23,000  feet. 

There  is  a  small,  independent  range  of  low  hills  lying  between  the 
Orinoco  and  Amazon  watersheds,  of  which  it  forms  the  dividing  line. 
These  hills  are  called  the  Sierras  of  Padavida,  Tunahi,  and  Cocuy. 
They  are  Uttle  known  or  explored 

Still  another  small,  independent  formation  is  that  of  the  Serrania 
de  Baudo,  a  line  of  low  hills  extending  along  the  Pacific  coast  from 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  San  Juan  River  to  the  boundary  with 
Panama.  These  are  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  same  range  as  the 
littoral  mountains  of  the  Caribbean  and  Central  America.  The  true 
Western  Range  of  the  Andes  in  Colombia  lies  just  to  the  east  and  is 
separated  from  the  Baudo  line  of  hills  by  the  valleys  of  the  San  Juan 
River  in  the  south  and  the  Atrato  River  in  the  north. 


26        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

WESTERN  CORDILLERA. 

The  western  slope  of  the  Western  Cordillera  receives  an  excessive 
rainfall,  making  vegetation  tropical,  while  many  places  on  the  eastern 
slope  receive  much  less  rain  and  are  semiarid.  The  range  begins 
(in  Colombia)  at  the  great  peak  of  Chiles  (15,680  feet)  and  also  that 
of  Cumbal  (15,710  leet),  on  the  boundary  with  Ecuador,  Chiles 
forming  also  the  connecting  link  with  the  Central  Cordillera.  To  the 
north,  along  the  western  littoral  of  Colombia,  this  Western  Range  is 
not  very  high,  averaging  between  6,000  and  12,000  feet  above  sea 
level  and  being  broken  oy  two  passes,  notably  that  of  the  River 
Patia,  which  breaks  its  way  through  the  Western  Range  and  reaches 
the  Pacific  just  north  of  the  port  of  Tumaco. 

CENTRAL  CORDILLERA. 

The  Central  Cordillera  is  the  highest  and  largest  range  of  mountains 
in  Colombia.  It  forms  the  most  inhabited  part  of  the  country.  In 
the  southern  region  of  this  Central  Range  there  are  several  high 
peaks,   the  centers  of  mountain  groups,   and   there  are  two  large 

f)lateaus,  those  of  Pasto  and  Popayan,  which,  however,  are  not  as 
arge  as  the  great  table-land  of  Bogota.  Near  Pasto  there  are  two 
active  volcanoes,  Purace  and  Sotara,  and  north  of  Popayan  one  of 
the  highest  peaks  in  Colombia,  Huila  (17,700  feet),  which  can  be 
seen  from  the  Cauca  Valley.  From  Huila  to  the  peak  of  Tolima 
(18,400  feet)  the  range  averages  12,000  feet,  with  heavy  vegetation 
on  both  sides.  North  of  Tolima  are  two  high  mountain  groups,  those 
of  Santa  Maria  and  Ruiz,  the  latter  being  a  great  mountain  covered 
with  snow  for  an  extent  of  40  miles  and  situated  in  the  Department 
of  Caldas. 

North  of  Ruiz,  in  Caldas  and  Antioquia,  the  Central  Cordillera 
spreads  out  into  broken  ranges,  with  a  general  northerly  direction, 
gradually  diminishing  in  size  and  height  until  they  disappear  in  the 
region  where  the  Cauca  River  makes  its  turn  to  the  east  toward  the 
Magdalena  River,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia, 
at  about  8°  north  latitude. 

EASTERN  CORDILLERA. 

The  Eastern  Cordillera  also  separates  itself  from  the  large  mountain 
group  near  Pasto  and  the  Ecuaclorian  border  and  strikes  to  the  north- 
east at  an  average  height  of  about  8,000  feet.  However,  in  the  south 
it  has  several  high  peaks,  including  those  of  Chita  and  Cocui,  tho 
latter  having  an  elevation  of  16,800  feet.  The  Eastern  Cordillera  is 
the  dividing  line  between  the  mountainous  part  of  the  country  (made 
up  of  the  three  main  ranges  of  the  Andes)  and  the  great  plains  of  the 
Ajnazon  and  Orinoco  watersheds.  The  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
Amazon  rise  in  the  Eastern  Cordillera  and  flow  in  a.  general  south- 
easterly direction  to  the  Amazon  south  of  the  ranges  of  low  liills 
called  the  Serrania  of  Padavida,  while  the  rivers  that  feed  the  head- 
waters of  the  Orinoco  rise  in  the  central  and  northern  sections  of  the 
Eastern  Range  and  flow  east  or  northeast  to  the  Orinoco. 

At  about  3°  north  latitude  the  Eastern  Cordillera  broadens  out 
into  the  most  remarkable  topographical  feature  of  the  entire  coun- 
try— the  high  table-land  of  Bogota,  called  the  "Sabanas  de  Bogota'' 
or  the  "Alta  Planicie,"  the  most  densely  populated  section  of  the 


GEOGRAPHY,   TOPOGRAPHY,   AND   CLIMATE.  27 

country  and  distant  about  700  miles  from  the  Caribbean  coast  to  the 
north.  This  high  plateau  is  150  miles  broad  by  300  miles  long, 
interspersed  with  hills  and  mountains,  and  extends  from  just  soutn 
of  the  city  of  Bogota  far  north  into  the  heart  of  the  Department  of 
Boyaca,  the  average  elevation  being  about  8,500  feet  above  sea  level. 
The  Eastern  Cordillera  may  be  subdivided  into  three  zones,  the 
table-land  of  Bogota  forming  the  central  zone,  and  the  northern 
zone  comprising  the  main  range  which  lies  to  the  east  along  the 
Venezuelan  border  and  the  irregular  mass  of  ranges  which  cover  the 
Departments  of  Santander  and  Norte  de  Santander  and  die  out  in  the 
Goajira  Peninsula  after  sending  an  important  range  into  Venezuela. 

RIVER  SYSTEMS. 

The  three  divisions  of  the  Andes  in  Colombia  give  the  key  to  the 
river  systems  of  the  country.  The  largest  is  that  of  the  Magdalena 
River,  which  has  its  source  far  south  m  the  Department  of  Huila, 
near  the  point  where  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordilleras  separate, 
and  flows  between  the  Central  and  Eastern  Cordilleras  for  a  distance 
of  1,060  miles  to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  being  joined  by  the  Cauca 
River,  the  second  largest  river  of  Colombia,  which  rises  near  Popayan, 
between  the  Central  and  Western  Cordilleras,  and  flows  to  the  north 
until  the  end  of  the  Central  Range  is  reached,  when  it  turns  to  the 
east  toward  the  Magdalena,  which  it  joins  about  200  miles  from  the 
sea.  With  the  exception  of  the  Cauca  and  the  San  Jorge,  which 
also  flows  into  the  Magdalena  just  below  its  junction  with  the  Cauca, 
the  Magdalena  has  no  important  tributaries  on  its  western  side. 
However,  on  the  eastern  side  there  are  a  number  of  important 
rivers — several  of  them  navigable  for  small  steamers  during  seasons 
of  high  water — which  come  from  the  western  slopes  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera;  there  are  the  Rio  Carare  and  the  Rio  Sogamoso  and  also 
the  Rio  Lebrija  in  Santander  and  the  Rio  Cesar  in  the  Department 
of  Magdalena,  this  latter  stream  flowing  from  the  north  to  the  south 
from  the  region  between  the  Eastern  Cordillera  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada. 

Two  great  valleys  are  formed  by  the  two  principal  rivers  men- 
tioned. That  of  the  Magdalena  begins  north  of  the  rapids  at  Honda 
but  is  not  very  wide  until  the  river  passes  Banco,  below  the  junction 
of  the  Rio  Cesar  from  the  east,  whence  it  opens  out  into  tne  great 
alluvial  plains  of  Atlantico  and  Bolivar  and  the  swampy  region  to 
the  east.  The  valley  of  the  Cauca  River  is  between  the  Western 
and  Central  Cordflleras.  This  valley  is  very  different  from  that  of 
the  Magdalena  and  may  be  called  an  interior  valley,  where  the 
climate  is  not  the  extreme  tropical  one  of  the  lower  Magdalena 
VaUey  but  a  semi  tropical  climate  of  3,500  feet  mean  elevation 
above  sea  level.  This  statement  refers  to  the  Cauca  Valley  between 
a  point  just  north  of  the  city  of  Call  and  a  point  as  far  north  as  the 
end  of  the  territory  of  the  Department  of  EI  Valle  at  Cartago,  where 
broken  ranges  of  the  Central  and  Western  Cordilleras  come  together 
and  cut  off  farther  navigation  of  the  river  to  the  north — dividing 
the  river  into  two  navigaole  sections,  the  lower  communicating  with 
the  Mfi^dalena  and  the  upper  extending  between  Cartago  and 
Cali.  The  Cauca  Valley  is  a  long  and  more  or  less  narrow  stretch 
of  territory  lying  between  the  limits  given  above;  and  it  forms  one 


28         COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

of  the  three  regions  of  the  country  (the  others  being  the  table-land  of 
Bogota  and  the  plains  of  the  Magdalena  near  the  Caribbean  coast) 
where  there  is  any  great  extent  of  level  land  suitable  for  agricultural 
development  on  a  large  scale. 

In  each  of  these  regions  conditions  of  climate,  soil,  and  rainfall 
are  very  different  and  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

The  table-land  of  Bogota,  at  8,500  feet  elevation,  is  cool  and 
temperate  with  little  variation  in  seasons  or  temperature;  living 
conaitions  in  general  approach  those  in  certain  portions  of  Europe 
and  the  United  States;  wheat  is  grown  in  abundance  and  the  rainfall 
is  more  or  less  constant  all  the  year  around,  with  no  defined  dry 
and  wet  seasons. 

The  Cauca  Valley  is  not  temperate  but  still  is  not  nearly  so  tropical 
as  the  lands  of  the  Caribbean  coast;  the  mean  elevation  is  between 
3,000  and  3,500  feet,  and  the  soil  is  shallower  than  that  of  the  deep 
alluvial  fill  of  the  Magdalena  Valley,  in  its  northern  part,  nearer  to 
the  sea. 

The  northern  plains  in  Atlantico  and  Bolivar  are  very  tropical 
and  covered  witn  a  dense  jungle  where  they  are  not  cleared  for 
cattle  raising  or  planting;  there  are  well-defined  dry  and  wet  seasons 
and  rains  are  heavy  (more  so  than  in  the  Cauca  Valley). 

The  Sinu  River  is  an  independent  river  situated  to  the  west  of 
the  Magdalena  and  rising  in  the  foothills  of  the  Western  and  Central 
Cordilleras  where  they  come  together  in  the  north.  It  flows  directly 
north  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  through  a  level  country  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Bolivar  and  is  separated  from  the  Atrato  River  Valley  by 
a  low  range  of  hills  running  north  and  south. 

The  Atrato  River  flows  Detween  the  low  coastal  range  called  the 
Serrania  de  Baudo  and  the  Western  Cordillera  and  empties  into  the 
Bay  of  Uraba  on  the  Gulf  of  Darien  near  the  boundary  with  Panama. 
Its  source  is  at  a  point  where  the  Western  Cordillera  and  the  low 
coast  range  are  united  by  a  group  of  low  hills.  From  this  place 
the  San  Juan  River  also  takes  its  source  but  flows  to  the  south 
toward  Buenaventura,  emptying  into  the  Pacific  near  Point  Chiram- 
bira,  which  forms  the  northern  part  of  the  Bay  of  Choco,  on  which 
the  harbor  of  Buenaventura  is  situated.  The  Atrato  receives  a 
great  deal  of  water  from  the  torrential  rains  of  the  region  and  is 
navigable  for  quite  large  steamers  when  once  the  sand  bars  of  its 
mouth  are  passed.  Regular  steamer  traflSc  is  maintained  through- 
out most  of  the  year  with  Cartagena.  The  region  of  the  San  Juan 
and  Atrato  Rivers  is  perhaps  the  most  tropical  in  Colombia,  and 
there  are  many  miles  oi  great  swamps  along  these  rivers,  throughout 
which  the  canoe  is  the  only  means  of  transportation,  though  the 
rivers  themselves  are,  as  has  been  said,  navigable  during  a  part  of 
the  year  for  small  steamers  for  certain  distances  from  their  outlets  at 
the  sea.  "^ 

The  Patia  is  the  largest  river  of  the  west-coast  regions  that  flows 
into  the  Pacific.  It  has  its  source  in  the  mountain  group  near  Pasto, 
where  the  three  main  ranges  separate,  and  has  cut  its  way  through 
a  wonderful  series  of  gorges  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  just  north  of 
Tumaco.  By  means  of  this  river  and  one  of  its  affluents,  the  town 
of  Barbacoas,  situated  in  the  interior  back  of  Tumaco,  has  com- 
munication with  the  Pacific  by  means  of  small  steamers.  In  the 
region  of  Barbacoas  the  Patia  Kiver  forms  an  extensive  valley  well 


GEOGRAPHY,  TOPOGRAPHY,  AND  CLIMATE.  29 

suited  for  tropical  agriculture  and  mostly  devoted  to  cattle  raising. 
The  valley  is  most  tropical,  though  rains  are  not  nearly  so  heavy 
as  farther  north  in  the  San  Juan  or  the  Atrato  River  country. 

For  a  period  of  250  years,  during  the  colonial  period,  the  rivers 
of  Colombia  afforded  the  only  means  of  transportation  from  the 
interior  to  the  coast  or  from  one  district  to  another,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  the  pack  mule  and  pack  ox,  which  carried  exports  down  to 
the  rivers  from  the  mountains  of  the  interior  or  took  back  into  these 
mountains  imported  goods  of  all  kinds.  Railways  that  have  been 
built  since  then  have  all  been  connecting  links  with  the  rivers  for 
points  in  the  interior.  From  this  fact  it  is  readUy  understood  how 
important  a  part  the  rivers  of  the  country  have  played  in  its  com- 
merce and  development.  However,  even  the  great  Magdalena  and 
the  Cauca  are  not  deep,  well-channeled  streams,  and  their  naviga- 
tion even  by  small,  shallow-draft  craft  has  always  been  attended 
with  danger,  expense,  and  great  delays  on  account  of  insufficient 
water  during  the  protracted  dry  seasons.  The  time  has  arrived 
when  the  rivers  are  no  longer  adequate  to  carry  the  commerce  of 
the  country,  and  the  great  problem  is  that  of  railway  building,  in 
order  to  afford  a  more  rapid,  sure  means  of  export  and.  import  trade 
and  to  facilitate  the  business  of  the  country  in  general. 

(For  details  concerning  the  Magdalena  River,  see  the  discussion 
beginning  on  p.  203.) 

GOAJIRA  PENINSULA. 

The  Goajira  Peninsula  juts  out  into  the  Caribbean  on  the  north- 
eastern corner  of  Colombia  between  Santa  Marta  and  the  Gulf  of 
Maracaibo  in  Venezuela.  The  area  of  the  Territory  of  Goajira 
is  5,019  square  miles.  It  is  inhabited  by  75,795  people,  principally 
Goajira  Indians,  a  sturdy  and  warlike  tribe,  or  rather  group  of 
tribes,  which  have  consistently  repulsed  the  advances  of  civiliza- 
tion— this  being  probably  due  to  the  semiarid  character  of  the  land 
of  the  peninsula,  containing  little  attraction  for  development 
enterprises. 

The  land  is  fairly  level  in  character,  and  is  mostly  sandy  and  arid 
along  the  coast,  where  grow  the  divi-divi  trees  ( Caesalpinia  coriaria) , 
producing  the  principal  article  of  commerce  of  these  regions.  This 
type  of  country  alternates  with  heavy  clay  lands  where  little  but 
cactus  grows — with  here  and  there  swampy  "pantanos."  In  the 
center  of  the  peninsula  are  rather  large  areas  of  savana  lands  which 
are  covered  with  an  excellent  short  grass  (Arestida)  in  October  but 
are  dry  and  arid  during  most  of  the  year,  not  affording  sufficient  pas- 
ture for  cattle  all  the  year  round  and  also  being  more  or  less  subject 
to  overflows  during  the  short  rainy  season. 

In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  peninsula  vegetation  alters  and 
becomes  more  luxuriant  toward  the  mountains  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
where  there  is  more  rainfall.  Here  are  found  extensive  pastures 
of  "guinea"  grass,  which  was  originally  imported  by  the  Spaniards 
in  colonial  times.  As  many  as  10  leagues  of  good  pasture  are  seen 
in  one  place,  and  it  is  this  region  of  the  peninsula  that  is  capable  of 
development  in  the  way  of  cattle  raising,  the  problem  being  to  get 
the  cattle  out  to  market  in  good  condition. 

The  prinicpal  town  is  Rio  Hacha,  on  the  Caribbean,  where  there 
is  a  small,  very  shallow  harbor.     The  trade  is  not  important. 


30        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

In  the  region  of  Rio  Hacha  there  are  very  extensive  areas  of 
natural  "fique" — a  species  of  henequen — said  to  be  capable  of 
producing  large  quantities  of  fiber. 

Cattle  and  goat  skins,  brazil  wood,  and  divi-divi  are  the  principal 
exports. 

A  very  complete  description  of  the  lands  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula 
and  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  is  contained  in  "An 
Account  of  a  Journey  Down  the  Magdalena  River  and  Through  the 
Magdalena  Province  and  Peninsula  of  Goajira,  Colombia,"  by  Prof. 
M.  T.  Dawe,  F.  L.  S.,  agricultural  expert  for  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment. "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  also  contains  a  good  de- 
scription. 

Large  beds  of  lignite  are  reported  in  the  peninsula  near  the  moun- 
tains at  Serrajon,  and  there  are  deposits  of  a  very  good  quality  of 
kaolin  near  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo,  but  these  are  little  worked. 

The  route  from  Bahia  Honda,  a  deep-water  natural  harbor  near 
the  extreme  eastern  end  of  the  peninsula,  through  the  peninsula 
and  via  the  Valle  Dupar  to  the  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  has  often 
been  considered  as  an  excellent  rail  route  to  Bogota — the  reason 
being  the  long  stretch  of  practically  level  land,  through  which  con- 
struction would  not  be  as  costly  as  in  the  mountains  of  the  interior. 

As  a  result  of  recent  explorations  in  the  Valle  Dupar  country, 
deposits  of  copper  have  been  reported  in  the  region  of  Soldado  and 

CLIMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 

In  a  mountainous  country  like  Colombia,  climate  is  a  matter  of 
elevation,  and,  where  elevations  vary  from  sea  level  to  the  snow  line 
at  16,000  feet,  all  varieties  of  climatic  conditions  are  encountered. 
It  is  this  difference  in  climate  that  has  had  such  a  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  the  country.  The  early  Spanish  colonists  sought 
the  cool  elevations  of  the  interior  rather  tnan  the  hot  tropical  lands 
of  the  more  level  coast  on  the  north,  and  to-day  the  greatest  develop- 
ment and  most  dense  population  are  still  found  on  the  high  and  cool 
table-land  of  Bogota. 

Colombia  is  situated  in  the  Tropics,  so  far  as  latitude  is  con- 
cerned, but  it  is  not  wholly  a  tropical  country  by  any  means,  the 
elevations  of  the  mountains  of  tne  interior  bringing  about  many 
changes  in  climate. 

CLIMATIC  ZONES. 

Climatically,  the  country  is  divided  into  zones  just  as  it  is  topo- 
graphically.    There  are  four  principal  climatic  zones: 

First,  that  of  the  coasts,  both  Atlantic  and  Pacific,  very  hot  and 
damp  all  the  year  round. 

Second,  the  region  farther  in  the  interior,  composed  of  foothills 
up  to  an  elevation  of  3,000  or  4,000  feet.  Here  tne  climate  is  still 
very  hot  and  the  vegetation  dense,  but  the  atmosphere  grows  cooler 
as  the  higher  elevations  are  reached.  For  example,  at  3,500  feet 
the  climate  would  be  considered  semitropical,  varying  according 
to  location  and  rainfall. 

Third,  the  first  low  ranges  of  the  mountains,  up  to  6,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  in  which  the  climate  is  mild  and  equable,  with  moderate 
rainfall. 


GEOGRAPHY,   TOPOGRAPHY,   AND   CLIMATE.  31 

,  Fourth,  the  higher  ranges  of  the  mountains  and  the  high  plateaus 
of  the  interior,  such  as  those  of  Bogota,  Popayan,  and  Pas  to,  all 
above  6,000  feet,  where  the  climate  is  cool,  with  the  temperature 
ranging  from  40°  to  64°  F.  and  occasional  frosts  above  9,000  feet. 
In  this  zone  there  is  little  variation  in  the  seasons,  there  being  no 
well-defined  wet  or  dry  season.  Rains  are  frequent  but  light  in 
character,  the  tropical  downpours  of  the  lower  river  valleys  and 
the  coast  being  entirely  absent. 

CUMATE  OF  THE  CARIBBEAN  COAST. 

As  has  been  said,  the  territory  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  is  very 
dry  and  arid  along  the  coast.  Light  rains  usually  occur  in  the 
summer  months,  beginning  in  May,  but  they  are  not  dependable. 
The  central  part  of  the  peninsula  receives  more  moisture,  being 
nearer  to  the  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  which  lie  to  the  west 
and  south  and  send  down  numerous  small  streams.  These  are 
shallow  on  the  level  plain  of  the  interior  of  the  peninsula,  and  the 
land  is  often  flooded  by  water  from  the  mountains  during  the  rainy 
season,  which  begins  in  May  and  lasts  until  October. 

The  Santa  Marta  region  receives  slightly  more  moisture  than  Rio 
Hacha  (to  the  east  in  the  Goajira  country) ,  but  not  enough  to  mature 
crops,  irrigation  having  to  be  resortea  to  in  the  banana  district 
south  of  Santa  Marta  harbor.  The  annual  average  precipitation 
in  this  latter  region  does  not  exceed  14  inches.  IThe  30,000  acres 
of  bananas  in  this  region  are  irrigated  from  the  numerous  streams 
coming  down  from  the  Sierra  Nevadas  on  the  western  slope.  Farther 
to  the  south,  in  the  region  of  the  Rio  Cesar,  there  is  more  abundant 
rainfall,  often  exceeding  60  inches  per  year,  and  the  country  is 
swampy  as  far  as  the  Magdalena  River,  being  covered  with  heavy 
tropical  vegetation. 

The  Santa  Marta  region  suffers  frequently  from  high  wind  storms, 
or  hurricanes,  which  come  from  the  southeast  and  do  great  damage 
in  the  banana  plantations  by  blowing  down  the  tender  and  heavj 
banana  plants,  mvolving  a  loss  of  five  to  six  months  in  cutting  fruit 
on  the  areas  damaged  by  winds. 

The  Caribbean  coast  in  the  region  of  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena 
receives  more  rainfall  than  Santa  Marta,  but  still  not  sufficient  to 
mature  field  crops  very  well,  there  being  frequent  years  of  extreme 
drought  lasting  from  October  until  May.  The  annual  average  pre- 
cipitation is  about  26  inches.  Seasons  in  which  excessive  rains  and 
violent  storms  cause  damage  occur  about  every  eighth  year. 

The  coast  between  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena  is  dry  and  rather 
arid  for  a  distance  of  30  miles  inland,  though  certain  low  areas  are 
subject  to  flooding  from  the  waters  of  the  Magdalena  during  seasons 
of  high  water  in  the  river,  which  is  fed  by  its  many  tributaries  and 
heavy  rains  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  interior.  More  rain  occurs 
farther  south  of  Cartagena,  where  the  land  is  better,  in  the  great 
alluvial  fill  stretching  from  the  Dique  south  to  the  San  Jorge  River 
and  west  to  the  west  side  of  the  Sinu  River. 

In  the  Sinu  region  the  rainfall  is  still  heavier,  and,  except  in  ab- 
normal years  of  extreme  drought,  there  is  sufficient  rainfall  to  mature 
field  crops,  the  average  annual  precipitation  being  about  42  inches. 
As  one  proceeds  south  in  this  district  the  soil  is  found  to  be  more 
moist  and  to  hold  moisture  better. 


32      coliOmbia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

Still  farther  west  the  rainfall  increases  rapidly,  becoming  excessive 
in  the  region  of  the  Atrato  River,  where  rains  are  almost  continuous 
and  the  precipitation  is  as  heavy  as  that  of  Panama,  being  about  160 
inches  per  annum — or  even  greater  farther  in  the  interior,  in  the 
region  of  the  town  of  Quibdo.     (See  p.  218.) 

It  has  been  said  that  the  coast  regions  are  very  hot  and  damp, 
being  extremely  tropical.  However,  the  extreme  heat  of  the  coast 
at  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena,  and  also  farther  to  the 
west,  is  tempered  during  the  fall  and  winter  months  by  the  northeast 
trade  winds,  which  blow  steadily  during  the  day  from  October  until 
April — that  is,  during  the  dry  season. 

During  the  spring  equinox  a  short  period  of  light  rains  is  usuallv 
expected  and  relied  upon  to  mature  field  crops  planted  in  the  fall. 
These  spring  rains  sometimes  fail,  however. 

CUMATE  OF  THE  INTERIOR. 

Farther  inland  from  the  Caribbean  the  heat  is  even  greater  than 
along  the  coast,  since  the  cooling  effect  of  the  trade  winds  is  not  felt. 
Vegetation  becomes  very  dense  and  tropical,  and  the  temperature 

f;oes  every  day  to  as  high  as  95°  F.  This  region  includes  the  Magda- 
ena  Valley  as  far  up  as  Girardot  and  the  country  around  the  San 
Jorge  and  Lower  Cauca  Rivers  in  Antioquia  and  Bolivar.  There  are 
two  well-defined  seasons — the  rainy  season,  from  May  or  June  to 
December,  and  the  dry  season,  from  December  to  May.^ 

Farther  south  along  the  ranges  of  the  Central  Andes,  in  the  region 
of  the  city  of  Medellin,  the  climate  changes.  There  are  two  wet  and 
two  dry  seasons,  the  former  occurring  during  April,  May,  and  June 
and  during  November  and  December.  The  temperature  varies  with 
the  elevation.  That  of  Medellin,  at  5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  is 
like  warm  spring  weather  in  the  United  States; ,  the  temperature 
varying  between  64°  and  84°  F.  every  day,  with  an  average  of  76°  F. 

Still  farther  south  along  this  range — as,  for  example,  at  Msinizales, 
at  7"000  feet  elevation — the  seasons  and  the  amount  of  rainfall 
(averaging  about  60  inches  per  annum)  are  the  same,  but  the  tempera- 
ture is  cooler  and  may  be  called  ideal — not  too  cool  like  the  table-land 
of  Bogota  nor  just  a  trifle  too  warm,  as  in  Medellin,  but  just  right  all 
the  year  round.  Manizales  has  the  best  climate  of  any  large  town  in 
Colombia. 

In  the  Cauca  Valley  conditions  are  about  the  same  as  for  the 
second  zone,  with  two  wet  seasons  and  two  dry  seasons,  the  climate 
being  called  semitropical  and  the  temperature  averaging  76°  F. 

Along  the  Pacific  coast  and  the  western  slope  of  me  Western  Cor- 
dillera and  the  small  northern  coast  range  of  hills,  rains  are  incessant 
and  very  heavy,  equaling  the  fall  in  the  Atrato  region  and  that  of 
Panama.  At  the  Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura  it  rains  every  day, 
and  the  annual  precipitation  is  more  than  160  inches.  This  heavy 
rainfall  of  the  coast  diminishes  farther  south  and  in  the  neighborhood 
of  the  port  of  Tumaco  is  reduced  to  the  normal  amount  of  60  inches 
per  annum  on  the  average. 

The  third  zone,  that  of  elevations  up  to  6,000  feet,  also  has  two  wet 
and  two  dry  seasons,  the  rains  coming  about  one  month  earlier  than 
on  the  lower  levels  but  in  approximately  the  same  amount.  The 
temperature  V9,ries  between  58    and  72°  F. 


GEOGRAPHY,   TOPOGRAPHY,  AITD   CLIMATE.  33 

EFFECT  ON  TRADE  OF  CLIMATIC  VARIATIONS. 

From  the  foregoing  it  is  seen  that  Colombia  possesses  a  great 
variety  of  climates,  necessarily  affecting  the  habits  and  mode  of  life 
of  the  people,  their  characteristics,  racial  tendencies,  and,  in  fact, 
every  pnase  of  existence.  For  example,  on  the  coast  only  the  very 
lightest  clothing  is  worn — cotton  drilling,  linen.  Palm  Beach,  white 
canvas  shoes,  straw  hats,  etc.  Medellin  uses  both  light,  white  clothing 
of  the  Tropics  and  also  lightweight  woolens,  serges,  etc.;  and  the 
people  of  Antioquia  are  more  energetic,  their  houses  are  better  fur- 
nished and  more  modern,  and  a  greater  variety  of  merchandise  is 
needed  than  throughout  the  coast  regions,  where  life  is  generally 
more  primitive  among  the  lower  classes.  The  Manizales  district 
takes  medium-weight  cloths  and  light  woolens,  while  Bogota  uses 
heavy  woolens  and  affords  a  market  for  the  usual  goods  sold  in  the 
United  States.  At  the  same  time,  lighter  weight  materials  are  also 
in  demand  in  Bogota  because  this  center  furnishes  goods  at  wholesale 
to  a  wide  and  varied  district,  selling  light  cotton  goods  to  the  Mag- 
dalena  Valley  and  Santander,  as  well  as  Tolima  and  Huila,  and 
carrying  stocks  to  meet  the  conditions  of  climate  of  the  different 
zones  from  the  extreme  Tropics  of  the  river  valleys  to  the  cold  lands 
of  Bogota.  In  Bogota  there  is  a  market  for  waterproof  garments, 
rubbers,  umbrellas,  etc.,  and  in  Medellin  and  Manizales  for  light- 
weight raincoats,  etc.,  while  these  garments  are  not  worn  on  the  coast, 
because  the  extreme  heat  makes  their  use  insupportable  and  soon 
damages   them. 

On  the  coast  and  in  the  interior  hot  valleys,  celluloid  fastenings  for 
suspenders,  garters,  belts,  etc.,  are  in  demand  because  this  material 
does  not  corrode  and  rust  with  the  moisture  and  thus  stain  and 
damage  the  cloth  of  the  clothing  worn.  In  the  cooler  regions  metal 
fastenings  can  be  used.  This  small  example  shows  how  a  study  of 
these  climatic  conditions  will  help  to  promote  trade  and  add  to  the 
usefulness  of  American  goods  sent  into  these  different  regions  of  such 
a  country  as  Colombia. 

CLIMATE  OF  THE  "LLANOS." 

Taking  the  great  plains  of  the  ''llanos"  as  a  whole,  it  may  be  said 
that  the  climate  is  extremely  tropical  tliroughout  their  extent.  As 
has  been  said,  this  immense  region  is  not  inhabited  and  at  the  present 
time  has  little  commercial  importance.  In  the  northern  part,  through- 
out the  watershed  of  the  Orinoco,  the  land  is  more  open  and  covered 
with  grasses,  with  copses  of  trees  only  along  the  water  courses.  The 
southern  regions,  called  the  ''selvas,"  throughout  the  watershed  of 
the  Amazon,  are  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest.  Rains  are  very 
heavy  in  the  southern  region  and  last  from  May  until  December. 
During  the  rainy  season  the  rivers,  which  are  shallow,  overflow  their 
banks  and  inundate  enormous  stretches  of  country,  making  it  impass- 
able for  men  on  foot  or  horseback,  the  canoe  being  the  only  means  of 
transportation.  All  sorts  of  tropical  fevers  are  prevalent  in  this 
region,  and  there  are  also  diseases  peculiar  to  this  territory. 

37558°— 21 3 


POPULATION  AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

STATISTICS  OF  POPULATION. 

The  following  table  shows  the  population  of  Colombia  by  political 
divisions  in  1896  and  1912  (the  censifs  of  1918  being  incomplete): 


Area." 

Population. 

N)im- 
ber  of 
Prov- 
inces. 

Num- 
ber of 

Departmenta. 

Census  of 
1896. 

Census  of 
1912. 

Census  of 
1918. 

munici 
pal- 
itics. 

Antioquia  (capital,  Medellin) 

Sg.  miles. 
24,401 

1,082 
23,938 
17,654 

7,915 
21,882 

8,629 

8,687 
20,463 
10,039 

6,708 
19, 161 
10,  811 

4,179 
85, 328 
187,258 
13, 761 

5,019 

648,190 
112,  261 
202,945 
608,989 
246,368 
211,  891 
632,847 
154,641 
127,806 
244,330 
164,290 
377,  393 
218,  810 
217,096 
7,497 
45,856 

741, 816 
114,887 
425,975 
586,499 
341,  198 
211  756 

817, 530 

10 
2 

10 

13 
5 
6 

12 
3 
5 
8 
3 
9 
5 
6 
1 

8.5 

Atlantico  (capital,'Barraaquilla) 

19 

463,165 

58 

Boyaca  (capital,  Tunja) 

128 

Caldas  (capital,  Maiiizales) 

428,137 

29 

Cauca  (capital,  Popayan) 

29 

Oundinaniarca  (capital,  Bogota) 

Huila  (capital,  Neiva) 

721,615 
158,  191 
149,  557 
311,791 
201,  481 

109 

29 

Magdalcna  (capital,  Santa  Marta) 

Narino  (capital,  Pasto) 

32 

44 

Norte de  San tanderXcapitaljCuciita).. 
Santander  (capital,  Bucaramanga) 

28 

400,084 
283,333 
217,  147 
>  14,  220 

71 

ToUma  (capital,  Ibaguo) 

3 

El  Vallo  (capita'l.  Call) . '. 

29 

Intcndeney  of  the  Meta 

3 

Intendcncv  of  the  Choco 

s  66, 950 
75,795 
6,953 

2 

1 
2 

6 

Territory  of  La  Goajira 

75, 795 
5,311 



15 

Islaudsof  San  Andresand  Provldencia. 

Total 

476, 915 

4,  539, 088 

>  5, 038, 803 

<6, 000, 000 

1  The  flgvu-es  for  the  Intendencia  del  Meta  include  tliose  of  the  Comisaria  dc  Arauca. 

*  The  figur&s  for  the  Intendencia  del  Choco  include  the  population  of  the  leper  colony  and  the  Comisarias 
de  Jurado  and  Uraba,  latterly  assigned  to  the  Department  of  Antioqiiia. 

»  The  total  of  the  census  for  1912  includes  a  population  in  the  leper  colonies  of  6,555,  and  an  additional 
200,0(K)  may  bo  added  for  savage  tribes  on  wiiich  no  official  figures  are  available  at  this  time.  These  tribes 
would  include  those  of  the  "  Motillones"  in  Santander,  the  various  tribes  of  the  "llanos"  and  "selvas," 
and  the  Indians  of  the  Choco  Intcndeney. 

■•  The  total  given  for  1918  is  estimated,  being  calculated  on  the  increase  between  1S96  and  1912,  and  the 
figures  available  for  some  Departments  in  the  census  of  1918,  which,  late  in  1919,  had  not  yet  been  approved 
on  account  of  discrepancies  not  accepted  by  the  National  Cfovernment. 

The  large  increase  in  the  population  of  the  Department  of  Bolivar 
between  1896  and  1912  is  due  to  the  fact  that  additional  territory  was 
added  from  the  Departments  of  Atlantico  and  Antioquia. 

The  Departments  of  the  coast  received  considerable  influx  of  popu- 
lation from  the  interior,  principally  from  Antioquia.  The  natural 
increase  is  not  very  large  in  relation  to  population,  the  infant  death 
rate  being  very  high  in  all  tropical  regions  of  the  country — more  so 
than  in  the  more  healthful  areas  of  the  interior. 

The  largest  increase  in  population  is  shown  in  the  Department  of 
Ajitioquia,  where  the  percentage  of  increase  between  1896  and  1912 
was  11.3  per  cent  and  between  1912  and  1918  10.2  per  cent.  The 
Antioquia  increase  is  from  natural  causes  and  is  even  higher  than  is 
indicated  by  these  figures,  since  people  from  Antioquia  emigrate  to 
the  Cauca  Valley,  Caldas,  Tolima,  Cundinamarca,  and  Boyaca. 

The  most  populous  Department  is  Antioquia,  with  Cundinamarca  a 
close  second  and  Boyaca  third.     Antioquia  is  also  the  largest  in  area, 

34 


POPULATION  AND  LIVING   CONDITIONS.  35 

with  Bolivar  a  close  rival  and  Cauca  third.  The  Intendencies  of  the 
Caqueta  and  Meta  are  much  larger,  but  these  are  the  great  unin- 
habited lands  of  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  watersheds,  which  are 
not  considered  commercially  in  this  report. 

The  islands  of  San  Andres  and  Providencia  Ue  off  the  coast  of  Costa 
Rica  in  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  are  administered  from  Cartagena  by 
a  territorial  military  government.  They  have  no  commercial  connec- 
tion with  Colombia,  and  even  the  language  is  English  and  not  Span- 
ish, these  two  small  islands  being  inhabited  by  West  Indian  Negroes. 
The  principal  industry  is  the  growing  and  exportation  of  coconuts. 

RACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  PEOPLE. 

As  in  all  other  Latin  American  comitries,  wide  differences  in 
race  and  social  strata  exist  in  Colombia,  and  there  has  been  a  large 
infusion  of  Negro  blood  throughout  the  coast  and  river  regions.  In 
describing  the  racial  characteristics  of  Colombia,  one  of  the  best- 
known  modem  writers  on  the  country  (Phanor  J.  Eder,  ''Colombia," 
pp.  199-201)  says: 

It  was  to  the  interior  mountains  and  plateau  regions^  at  altitudes  where  the  climate 
was  more  like  that  of  home,  that  the  Spaniards  were  invariably  attracted,  no  matter 
what  the  distance  from  the  coast.  High  up  in  cool  regions  throughout  Spanish 
America  important  capitals  were  founded — Mexico  City,  Cartago,  Quito,  Caracas, 
♦La  Paz — all  situated  out  of  the  debilitating  lowland  heat  and  incidentally  safe  from 
the  attacks  of  enemies  besetting  the  coasts.  In  Colombia,  too,  the  same  rule  was 
observed;  the  Spaniards  sought  out  the  Andine  regions  to  found  their  homes.  In 
the  old  cities  like  Bogota  and  Popayan,  Benalcazar's  capital,  the  aristocratic  families 
held  sway  and  preserved  the  purity  of  their  race,  except  occasionally  in  the  earlier 
days  when  it  was  considered  no  disnonor  for  a  "conquistador"  to  marry  the  daughter 
of  an  Indian  chief.  Elsewhere  there  is  a  strong  admixture  with  the  Indians  and 
with  the  Negroes. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  intermixture,  of  the  varying  characteristics  of  the  Indian 
stocks  thus  absorbed,  and  of  the  lack  of  homogeneity  among  the  conquering  Spaniards, 
themselves  of  various  races  (Celt,  Teuton,  Basque,  Moor,  Jew)  and  of  widely  differing 
types  (Castillian,  Andalusian — the  latter  the  most  numerous  settlers  in  Colombia — 
Galician,  Catalan,  etc.),  plus  the  different  environments  in  which  these  complex 
blood  mixtui'es  found  themselves,  several  distinct  characters  of  type  have  in  the  coursS' 
of  centuries  developed  in  Colombia.  For,  though  we  speak  of  the  mass  of  the  Andine 
population,  yet  local  conditions  of  altitude,  climate,  and  soil  have  differed  greatly. 
Ilere  life  came  easy,  there  hard  work  was  necessary  for  subsistence ;  here  an  exuberance 
of  nature,  there  dry  air  and  an  arid  soil;  here  blazing  sunlight,  there  cold  mists  and 
fogs.  By  the  time  of  the  Independence,  the  types  now  generally  recognized  among 
the  "white"  Colombians — the  term  "white"  often  including  Indian  mixtures — had 
become  fairly  fixed.  The  further  evolution  has  been  complicated  by  the  gradual  dis- 
persion and  intermarriage  of  folk  from  the  various  regions,  and  the  somewhat  slower 
infusion  into  the  best  circles  of  drops  of  color  from  parvenus.  Each  locality  has  its 
own  peculiar  characteristics  well  worthy  of  study. 

INHABITANTS  OF  CARIBBEAN  COAST  REGIONS. 

INDIANS    OF   THE    GOAJIRA    PENINSULA. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  Indians  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula, 
who  are  probably  descendants  of  the  Caribs  who  made  such  an  heroic 
defense  against  the  invasions  of  the  Spaniards.  In  modern  times  the 
Goajiras  maintain  their  independence  and  are  a  hardy  and  warlike 
race  but  are  divided  into  tribes  which  carry  on  tribal  warfare. 

Commerce  is  carried  on  with  the  whites,  and  these  Indians  are 
nominally  submissive  to  the  authority  of  the  Government,  but  they  are 
resisting   all    attempts    at   subjection   or   civiUzation.     They    trade 


36         COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

cattle,  horses,  hides,  pearls,  brazil  wood,  and  divi-divi  for  bri^lit- 
colored  cotton  cloth,  hardware,  arms,  corn,  and  nun.  The  Indians 
along  the  coast  live  principally  on  fish  and  those  of  the  interior  on 
meat.  Several  Catholic  missionar^y^  organizations,  aided  by  the 
Government,  have  established  missions  in  the  peninsula,  where  the 
children  are  educated  by  the  priests  in  "  orf elinatos "  (literally, 
orphanages).  The  Goajiras  of  the  east  coast,  along  the  GuK  of  Mara^ 
caibo,  trade  with  Venezuela  by  that  route. 

INHABITANTS    OF   SANTA   MARTA,    BAKUANQUILI.A,    AND   CARTAGENA   UEOIONS. 

Back  of  Santa  Marta,  in  the  higher  elevations  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas, 
live  the  Ahruaco  Indians,  a  docile  tribe  very  unlike  the  Goajiras. 
The  latter  wear  little  clothing,  while  the  Ahruacos  wear  heavy  cotton 
cloths  and  long  mantles.  Tnese  Indians  live  in  permanent  villages 
of  tiny  huts  and  are  agricultural,  raising  diversified  crops,  from 
plantains  to  wheat,  but  only  enough  for  theu-  subsistence.  They  also 
raise  cattle,  which  is  their  means  of  barter  with  the  towns  of  the  lower 
regions  like  Santa  Marta.  The  region  of  the  mountains  inhabited 
by  these  Indians  is  well  suited  for  coffee  growing  up  to  an  elevation 
oi  over  10,000  feet,  but  these  Indians  do  not  form  a  supply  of  labor, 
which  is  the  factor  that  has  determined  the  slow  development  of  the 
coffee  industry  in  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 

To  the  east  and  south  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas  lies  a  varied  and  rich 
region  very  sparsely  inhabited  except  for  a  few  small  towns.  The 
country  has  no  roads  and  is  inaccessible,  and  the  white  settlers  have 
been  driven  away  very  often  by  the  depredations  of  the  Motilones 
Indians  from  the  Eastern  Cordillera. 

Along  the  Caribbean  coast,  in  the  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and 
Cartagena  districts,  the  predominating  population,  among  the  lower 
classes,  is  mulatto  or  Negro.  In  the  banana  plantations  of  Santa 
Marta  a  good  many  of  the  laborers  are  West  Indian  Negroes.  Colored 
men  from  the  West  Indies  also  work  on  the  docks  at  Santa  Marta, 
Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena.  Negroes  and  mulattoes  have  also  re- 
placed the  Indians  up  the  great  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  but  are  not 
found  in  the  high  lands  of  the  interior  in  any  numbers — a  Negro  being  a 
rare  sight  in  Bogota,  for  example,  where  the  climate  is  cold  and  damp 
and  the  Indian  population  predominates  in  numbers. 

During  colonial  times  there  was  a  considerable  group  of  tribes  of 
Carib  Indians  living  on  the  Sinu  River,  but,  like  the  Indians  of  the 
Magdalena  Valley,  tnese  Indians  have  disappeared  almost  completely, 
being  replaced  by  the  Negroes  imported  by  the  Spaniards  to  work 
the  placer  mines  and  the  plantations  of  the  rivers  and  to  build  the 
great  fortifications  of  Cartagena. 

An  important  element  on  the  coast  is  the  number  of  foreigners  en- 
gaged in  Dusiness  and  trade.  There  was  a  large  and  flourishing  Ger- 
man group,  especially  at  Barranquilla,  where  the  Germans  for  more 
than  naif  a  century  led  in  trade  and  enterprise,  being  the  first  to 
brino;  out  steamers  for  the  river  traffic.  Their  numbers  have  dimin- 
ished ^s  a  result  of  the  war. 

Syrians — erroneously  called  "Turcos,"  or  Turks,  by  the  natives — 
form  possibly  the  most  numerous  and  important  foreign  element  in 
the  trade  and  commercial  life  of  the  coast  centers.  These  people 
have  some  of  the  largest  stores  and  do  a  large  wholesale  business  Avith 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  206. 


FIG.  2.— GOVERNMENT  BUILDING,  SANTA   MARTA. 


POPULATION   AND  LIVING   CONDITIONS.  37 

the  interior,  principally  amon^  traders  of  their  own  nationality. 
They  are  also  Duyers  of  Colombian  exports  and  have  taken  a  leading 

gart,  through  branch  houses  established  in  Quibdo  (on  the  Atrato 
iver),  in  the  platinum  and  gold  export  trade.  Their  principal  line, 
which  they  know  exceedingly  well,  is  cotton  goods,  but  they  also  im- 
port a  general  line  of  merchandise.  The  Syrians,  while  not  Catholics, 
are  generally  well  received  by  the  natives  and  take  important  parts  in 
the  business  and  social  life  of  the  towns  and  cities  where  they  reside, 
becoming  members  of  the  chambers  of  commerce,  directors  in  local 
banks,  etc.  Iloweyer,  they  do  not  readily  assimilate  with  the  natives ; 
thev  bring  their  wives  out  from  Damascus  and  Beirut,  and  each  store 
is  the  center  of  a  large  family  group  with  many  ramifications  all  over 
Europe  and  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  Colombia. 

Their  main  advantage  lies  in  their  ability  to  resist  the  terrible  tropi- 
cal climates  of  the  coast  and  river  regions  better  than  any  other  for- 
eigners, or  even  the  natives  themselves  who  have  lived  there  all  their 
lives,  and  Syrian  traders  are  to  be  encountered  in  the  most  out-of-the- 
way  places  of  the  almost  unexplored  interior.  The  wealthier  mem- 
bers of  the  Syrian  colonies  invest  in  local  enterprises,  such  as  hat  fac- 
tories, shoe  factories,  sawmills,  cattle  ranches,  etc.,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  most  progressive  and  energetic  elements  of  the 
country.  Syrians  are  foimd  all  over  Colombia  except  in  Antioquia 
and  Bogota. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  Germans  and  the  Syrians  in  the  foreign 
colony  of  the  coast  cities  are  the  Italians,  who  manage  large  import- 
ing and  wholesale  houses  at  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  but  are  far 
outnumbered  by  the  Syrians. 

There  are  also  a  few  French,  a  few  English,  and  a  few  Americans, 
all  engaged  in  trade,  the  most  important  group  being  the  English 
representatives  of  British  textile  houses. 

In  the  interior  of  the  Department  of  Bolivar,  throughout  the  rich 
alluvial  plain  and  on  the  Sinu  River,  the  predominating  type  is  that 
of  the  Negroes  who  are  seen  here  in  almost  pure  type,  being  the  direct 
descendants  of  the  Negro  slaves  importecl  by  the  Spaniards  during 
colonial  times.  These  Negroes  live  in  a  very  primitivfe  manner  and 
can  not  be  considered  a  reliable  source  of  good  labor. 

West  of  the  Sinu  River,  along  the  Gulf  of  Morosquillo  and  toward 
the  Atrato,  there  is  a  scanty  population,  consisting  mostly  of  Negroes 
engaged  in  growing  coconuts  along  the  immediate  coast,  the  interior 
being  almost  entirely  uninhabited  as  far  back  as  the  Cauca  River  in 
Antioquia.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River  there  are  a  few  very 
small  and  unimportant  settlements  of  Negroes  and  a  few  Indians. 

Up  the  Atrato  River  there  is  a  rather  large  Negro  population  which 
works  in  the  platinum  and  gold  placers  of  the  rivers  to  the  south. 
Small  towns  nave  been  established  along  the  Atrato  River,  where 
plantains  and  corn  are  grown  and  some  cedar  is  cut  and  transported 
down  the  river  at  certain  times  of  the  year.  ''Tagua,"  the  so-called 
"vegetable  ivory,"  is  also  gathered,  as  well  as  some  rubber,  chicle, 
and  medicinal  plants  such  as  sarsaparilla  and  ipecac.  The  total 
population  is  estimated  at  about  80,000,  of  which  less  than  5  per  cent 
IS  white.  There  are  a  few  Indian  tribes,  very  primitive  but  peace- 
fully inclined.  Those  Indians  do  not  mix  with  the  Negroes  except 
in  very  rare  cases.  They  do  not  work  in  the*  placer  mines  of  the 
rivers  but  live  on  fruits  and  fish. 


38        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
INHABITANTS  OF  PACIFIC  COAST. 

From  the  boundary  of  Panama  to  Buenaventura,  the  Pacific  coast 
of  Colombia  is  almost  uninhabited  except  for  a  few  Negro  villages, 
very  small  and  poor.  As  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  the  Negro  predomi- 
nates at  Buenaventura  and  farther  south  at  Tumaco.  As  a  general 
thing,  these  Negroes  are  shiftless,  content  with  a  bare  existence  in  a 
land  of  plenty,  where  there  are  means  of  wealth  always  at  hand  for  the 
gathering.  However,  they  are  naturally  intelligent,  though  unedu- 
cated. 

INHABITANTS  OF  THE  INTERIOR.      " 

THE    MULATTO. 

No  better  description  of  the  Colombian  mulatto  can  be  found  than 
that  given  in  "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder: 

The  mulatto  of  the  interior  and  the  Atlantic  coast  towns  is  an  *  *  *  interesting 
type  and  constitutes  an  important  element  in  Colombian  life.  He  has  often  gained 
great  prominence  in  the  law,  journalism,  and  in  politics  and  revolutions,  where  he  is 
usually  on  the  Liberal  side.  To  generalize:  He  is  lively,  passionate,  subject  to  alter- 
nate moods  of  energy  and  indolence,  *  *  *  is  extremely  sociable,  artistic,  and 
musical,  *  *  *  is  capable  of  arduous  labor  and  often  displays  great  bravery,  and 
takes  readily  to  education  and  literature.  Physically  he  favors  his  African  ancestors, 
but  is  somewhat  more  attenuated;  intellectually  and  temperamentally  he  has  assimi- 
lated much  from  his  Spanish  progenitors. 

INHABITANTS   OF  ANTIOQTJIA. 

In  Antioquia  is  presented  the  most  interesting  racial  problem  of 
the  entire  country.  The  people  of  this  Department  are  different 
from  any  other  regional  population  in  Colombia.  Medellin  was  first 
colonized  by  the  Spaniards  under  Robledo,  and  it  is  said  that  a  num- 
ber of  Spanish  Jewish  families  who  had  accepted  Catholicism  in  Spain 
immigrated  to  Colombia,  settling  in  what  is  now  Antioquia.  This 
theory  is  certainly  borne  out  by  the  characteristics  and  physical  type 
of  these  people,  who  are  light  complexioned  (many  having  blue  eyes 
and  fair  hair  even  among  tne  lower  classes) ,  slight  of  build  as  a  rule, 
very  energetic  and  laborious,  thrifty  and  saving,  and  with  a  passion 
for  the  possession  of  property  of  their  own — something  not  found 
elsewhere  in  the  country  among  the  lower  classes.  As  an  example, 
in  Medellin  the  scheme  of  selling  city  building  lots  on  the  partial- 
payment  plan  has  been  very  successful,  the  buyers  being  principally 
working  people  of  very  small  means  who  have  saved,  a  dollar  at  a 
time,  to  Duy  a  plot  of  ground  that  they  could  call  their  own.  The 
same  influence  is  seen  in  the  great  number  of  tiny  farms  and  small 
holdings,  even  the  tops  of  the  mountains  being  cultivated  wherever 
there  is  a  patch  of  tillable  soil  large  enough  for  a  few  stalks  of  cane 
or  plantains. 

The  topography  of  Antioquia  has  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the 
development  of  these  hard-working  people.  Mining  has  always  been 
the  pnncipal  industry,  and  that  requires  ingenuity,  perseverance, 
and  hard  labor.  It  has  been  harder  to  extract  a  living  from  the 
mountains  than  on  the  coast  lands,  and  this  condition  has  made  the 
Antioqueflo  more  practical  and  self-asserting  than  any  other  people 
of  the  country.  He  is  noted  in  Colombia  for  nis  business  ability  and 
as  a  shrewd  trader,  and  has  invaded  almost  every  region  of  the 
country,  engaging  in  all  pursuits  of  life. 


POPULATION   AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS.  39 

In  Antioquia  is  found  the  largest  development  of  industry;  to-day 
it  is  the  richest,  most  populous,  and  most  progressive  Department 
of  Colombia  and  is  a  very  powerful  political  factor,  as  well. 

The  new  Department  of  Caldas,  to  the  south  alon^  the  same  range 
of  the  Andes,  was  formerly  a  part  of  Antioquia,  and  the  same  racial 
aspects  are  presented. 

INHABITANTS   OF   CAUCA   VALLEY  AND   REGION   TO   SOUTH. 

The  Cauca  Valley  and  the  region  to  the  south  comprise  the  present 
Departments  of  El  Valle,  Cauca,  and  Narino — formerly  the  State  of 
Cauca.  In  the  Cauca  Valley  proper  (an  area  of  level  valley  approxi- 
mately 15  to  25  miles  wide  and  about  150  miles  long,  lying  between 
the  Western  and  Central  Cordilleras  and  reaching  from  Call  to 
Cartago),  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  mulatto.  However,  there  are 
still  many  old  Spanish  families  of  pure  race  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  and 
these  are  the  leaders  in  politics  and  business. 

Farther  south,  in  Popayan,  was  the  stronghold  of  the  Spaniards 
during  the  wars  of  independence,  and  here  the  old  traditions  are  held 
in  reverence  and  preserved  to  this  day.  Coats-of-arms,  family 
lineage,  and  similar  considerations  are  factors  in  social  life,  but  the 
place  is  commercially  stagnant  and  the  younger  generation  has,  to 
a  large  extent,  removed  to  Bogota  to  engage  in  politics  or  to  the  Cauca 
Valley  for  business  and  cattle  raising.  The  city  of  Popayan  is  situ- 
ated on  a  high  but  irregular  plateau  at  5,900  leet  elevation,  giving 
it  a  cool  climate,  like  perpetual  spring,  but  disturbed  by  violent 
storms  and  subject  to  frequent  earthquakes  caused  by  the  proximity 
of  the  active  volcanoes  to  the  south  near  Pas  to.  In  this  region 
there  are  Indians  related  to  those  of  Bogota  and  the  races  of  the 
highlands  of  Ecuador — an  ugly  people,  of  short  stature,  without 
ambition,  unreceptive  to  modern  influences,  and  of  little  use  as 
labor. 

Farther  to  the  south,  around  Pasto,  are  the  Pastuso  Indians,  a 
more  energetic  and  intelligent  tribe  who  engage  in  agriculture,  make 
hats,  we.ave  cotton  and  woolen  cloth,  and  have  their  arts — -something 
unknown  among  the  other  tribes  of  the  country.  They  are  Catholics 
and  are  called  civilized,  though  in  reality  they  are  uneducsited  and 
backward  to  the  verge  of  fanaticism. 

INHABITANTS   OF   CUNDINAMARCA   AND   BOYACA. 

The  region  of  Bogota  presents  the  greatest  contrast  of  races. 
Here  was  the  most  intensive  settlement  of  the  Spaniards  and  here 
also  the  greatest  number  of  Indians,  the  Chibchas,  difi^erent  from  the 
Carib  types  of  the  coast  but  similar  to  the  Indians  of  Ecuador. 
To-day  there  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  old  Spanish  families, 
many  being  still  of  almost  pure  race;  there  are  the  pure  Indians, 
more  or  less  civilized  but  sunk  in  fanaticism  and  ignorance  and 
unreceptive  to  all  modern  influences;  and  there  is  a  comparatively 
small  class  of  ''mestizos,"  of  mixed  Spanish  and  Indian  blood,  who 
constitute  the  middle  class  and  are  the  artisans,  small  shopkeepers, 
etc.,  of  the  community.  The  Indians  of  the  highlands  of  Bogota 
and  in  the  Department  of  Boyaca  furnish  a  plantiful  supply  of  fairly 
efficient  labor,  and  they  are  good  farmers.  They  also  carve  woods 
and  weave  in  wool,  at  which  task  they  are  expert. 


40        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAI^   HANDBOOK. 

In  this  region  there  are  no  Negroes  or  nmlattoes  except  along  the 
river  valley  of  the  Magdalena,  which  is  hot  and  tropical.  The 
mulatto  or  Negro  does  not  penetrate  into  the  high,  cold  plateaus  of 
the  country  nor  into  the  mountains. 

INHABITANTS   OP  8ANTANDER. 

In  Santander  the  mulatto  predominates  along  the  Magdalena 
River,  while  in  the  interior  of  tnis  Department  the  people  are  more 
like  those  of  Antioquia,  though  not  as  energetic  or  resourceful. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  RACIAL  CONSIDERATIONS  FROM   A  COMMERCIAL  STANDPOINT. 

The  great  differences  in  the  inhabitants  of  the  country — differences 
of  race,  character,  and  mode  of  life — form  a  subject  that  is  important 
from  a  commercial  standpoint  and  should  be  studied ;  for  this  reason 
considerable  attention  has  been  paid  to  this  subject  in  the  section 
covering  each  commercial  division  of  the  country  (see  p.  185). 

In  summing  up  the  various  racial  components  of  the  population 
from  a  commercial  standpoint,  it  may  be  said  that  the  wealthy 
white  Colombian,  the  merchant,  the  banker,  the  politician,  or  the 
business  man,  is  very  much  interested  in  all  foreign  subjects,  new 
articles  of  commerce,  new  modern  conveniences,  new  machinery, 
new  methods,  new  industries,  and  new  markets  for  export  products 
of  the  country,  and,  by  reason  of  this  interest,  many  new  articles  of 
commerce,  not  previously  used  in  Colombia,  are  now  being  imported 
and  slowly  introduced  into  general  use. 

The  mulattoes  and  the  mestizos  are  also  alive  to  modern  influences 
and  are  quick  to  appreciate  new  conveniences,  more  especially  those 
of  personal  and  domestic  use.  These  classes  are  obtaining  better 
remuneration  for  their  services  or  products  than  ever  before  (this 
having  been  especially  true  during  1919  on  account  of  the  coffee  sit- 
uation), and  tney  are  consumers  to  an  increasing  extent  of  better 
grades  of  foreign  merchandise.  These  classes  constitute  by  far  the 
largest  purchasing  element  of  the  country,  and  it  is  in  the  increase 
of  purchasing  power,  due  to  better  prices  for  export  products  such 
as  coffee  and  hides,  that  one  finds  the  reason  for  the  phenomenal  in- 
crease in  Colombian  imports  from  the  United  States  during  1919. 

Concerning  the  future  of  the  Indians,  little  of  an  encouraging  na- 
ture can  be  said.  They  are  satisfied  with  little  and,  as  has  been  said, 
are  not  receptive  of  modern  influences.  In  numbers  they  are  de- 
creasing ratner  than  increasing,  being  slowly  absorbed  into  the 
mestizo  class;  and  their  purchasing  power  per  capita  is  very  small 
as  compared  with  that  of  the  mestizos  or  mulattoes,  who  form  the 
bulk  of  the  population. 

LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

Living  conditions  in  Colombia  vary  just  as  much  as  the  topog- 
raphy, the  climate,  the  character  and  race  of  the  people,  and  the 
general  conditions  of  each  region  into  which  the  country  is  primarily 
divided. 

The  people  of  the  upper  class — composed  of  the  descendants  o'  the 
old  Spanish  families  and  comprising  the  governing  class  of  the 
country,  the  principal  merchants,  bankers,  and  business  men — are 
usually  quite  wealtny,  as  wealth  is  measured  in  Colombia,  and  live 


POPtJLATTOX   AND  LIVING   CONDITION-S.  41 

in  modern  style,  surrounded  by  comforts  and  conveniences.  Fine 
residences  are  built  embodying  every  new  feature  of  construction 
and  following  the  French  style  of  architecture  rather  than  the  English 
or  American.  Baths  and  running  water  are  provided,  and  the  more 
modern  houses  are  located  in  individual  lots  surrounded  by  gardens 
and,  in  the  suburbs,  usually  removed  from  the  street.  One  thing 
lacking  in  most  cases  is  the  improvement  of  the  streets  leading  to 
these  beautiful  homes,  and,  also,  there  is  often  no  means  of  waste 
drainage,  but  these  defects  are  rather  the  fault  of  the  local  govern- 
ments than  of  the  owners  of  these  residences. 

In  earlier  times  this  same  class  built  large  houses  on  the  old  Span- 
ish style  of  architecture — that  is,  the  rooms  laid  out  around  a  central 
court  or  "patio"  and  often  occupied  by  offices  and  stores  on  the 
street  floor  level.  Many  of  these  old-style  houses  are  being  remod- 
eled, fitted  with  up-to-date  plumbing'  and  lighting  fixtures,  and 
made  modern  in  every  possible  way.  In  the  newer  houses  of  this 
wealthy  class  is  seen  the  individuality  of  these  people;  no  two  are 
alike,  and  many  of  them  are  beautiful  residences. 

Persons  of  this  class  consume  imported  wines  and  liquors,  canned 
and  preserved  fruits  and  meats,  etc.,  and  wear  imported  clothing, 
shoes,  and  hats.  They  are  interested  in  the  latest  styles,  new  do- 
mestic conveniences,  such  as  all  electrical  devices  for  the  household, 
new  developments  in  housing,  sanitation,  and  education,  and  are 
quick  to  seize  upon  new  ideas  of  foreign  countries  and  endeavor  to 
adapt  them  at  home.  Most  of  these  people  have  been  educated 
abroad;  prior  to  the  war  most  of  them  went  to  Europe,  but  many 
are  now  coming  to  the  United  States  for  this  education  and  profes- 
sional training  and  experience. 

It  is  also  this  element  that  establishes  branch  houses  in  New  York, 
Liverpool,  Manchester,  Hamburg,  and  elsewhere  and  keeps  the 
country  in  touch  with  other  countries  with  which  it  trades. 

Hospitalitj^  is  the  pride  and  enjoyment  of  upper-class  Colombians, 
combined  with  formal  courtesy,  which  is  by  no  means  absent  from 
the  business  life  of  the  country.  These  wealthy  people  are  accustomed 
to  a  household  of  servants  recruited  from  the  other  classes,  and  their 
style  of  livdn^  will  compare  with  that  of  any  similar  class  in  Europe 
to-day,  the  high  cost  of  imported  luxuries  being  compensated  by  the 
low  wages  of  servants  and  the  low  cost  of  domestic  staples. 

The  masses  of  the  people,  made  up  of  the  mulattoes  and  mestizos, 
live  in  a  manner  in  great  contrast  to  that  of  the  whites  (who  consti- 
tute about  10  per  cent  of  the  total  population,  while  the  mulattoes 
and  mestizos  combined  number  at  least  75  per  cent).  Even  among 
this  class  there  are  many  differences  in  manner  of  living.  The  clerk 
and  the  artisan  reside  in  fairly  good  brick  or  adobe  houses,  usually 
of  one  story,  and  having  a  certain  amount  of  modern  furniture  and 
conveniences  such  as  electric  lights.  Sometimes  a  servant  is  em- 
ployed to  do  the  heavier  work  of  the  household.  The  more  common 
worker  of  this  class,  either  laborer  or  craftsman,  lives  in  smaller  and 
more  congested  surroundings,  with  an  average  income  of  less  than 
S50  per  month  (as  compared  with  $75  to  $100  for  the  expert  artisan 
or  clerk)  and  consumes  much  less  foreign  merchandise — except 
textiles — taking  the  bulk  of  the  domestic  manufacturing  output  in 
all  lines.  Few  of  this  class  wear  leather  shoes,  and  the  field  and 
town  laborers  all  go  barefoot  or  wear  a  fiber  sandal  instead  of  shoes, 


42        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

which  arc  much  too  costly  for  them.  Their  principal  diet  is  the  uni- 
versal plantain  and  corn,  though  much  meat  is  consumed  per  capita — 
more  tnan  the  average  in  Europe  for  similar  strata  of  society. 

The  Negroes  of  the  coast  ana  river  valleys  of  the  interior  can  next 
bo  considered.  They  live  in  a  very  primitive  manner,  to  say  the 
least,  residing  in  tiny,  palm-thatched  huts  of  one  room,  with  no 
modern  furniture  or  conveniences  of  any  kind  whatever,  and  their 
principal  article  of  purchase  is  the  commoner  grade  of  cotton  cloth; 
this  and  an  occasional  machete  are  about  all  the  foreign-made  goods 
taken  by  these  people.  Food  for  them  is  cheap  and  plentiful  (almost 
to  be  had  for  the  picking,  it  might  be  said) ,  and  in  the  tropical  climate 
little  clothing  is  needed  at  any  time. 

The  various  tribes  of  Indians  are  on  a  par  with  the  Negro  of  the 
interior  valleys. 

Towns  ana  cities  of  importance — say  those  of  20,000  or  more 
inhabitants — have  electric  lighting  plants  and  a  water  system 
(often  inadequate,  however).  There  are  tramways  in  Bogota  and 
Barranquilla,  and  hack  service  and  telephones  are  provided  in 
Bogota,  Medellin,  Cartagena,  and  Barranquilla.  The  automobile 
is  also  coming  into  its  own  in  Colombia,  and  numbers  of  cars  are 
beginning  to  be  seen  at  Barranquilla,  Cartagena,  Medellin,  Bogota, 
and  Cali.  Even  as  far  south  in  the  interior  as  the  mountainous 
region  of  Pasto  the  automobile  has  penetrated,  and  it  is  being  used 
on  the  new  wagon  road  that  is  being  built  from  Pasto  north  toward 
Barbacoas  and  Tumaco  to  furnish  a  highway  from  Pasto  to  the  sea. 
The  road  was  started  from  Pasto,  and  this  made  it  necessary  for  the 
first  cars  to  be  packed  on  mules  and  oxen  overland  by  mule  trail 
from  the  river  port  of  Barbacoas  to  the  end  of  the  road  constructed. 
A  recent  order  called  for  72  American  cars,  of  moderate  price,  for  one 
agent  who  covers  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena.  New  roads  are 
being  built  and  others  extended,  and,  with  cheap  gasoline  at  New 
York  prices  produced  in  the  country  (according  to  the  Government's 
contract  with  an  American  oil  company) ,  the  automobile  and  auto- 
truck may  be  considered  a  factor  of  the  future  in  Colombia,  not- 
withstanding the  very  mountainous  character  of  the  interior. 

SANITATION  AND  HEALTH.      . 

Sanitation  and  health  constitute  perhaps  the  greatest  problem 
of  the  Colombian  Government,  and  many  laws  have  been  passed 
concerning  sanitation  of  seaports  and  river  towns,  etc.  The  curse  of 
the  Tropics  is  malaria  and  tropical  anemia.  Physicians  in  Colombia 
report  that  90  per  cent  of  the  diseases  treated  are  caused  directly 
or  indirectly  by  malaria,  which  undermines  the  strength  and  physique 
of  the  people.  In  1917  Prof.  Dawe,  agricultural  expert  for  the 
Colombian  Government,  reported  that  many  of  the  Goajira  Indians 
were  dyin^  of  malaria,  the  epidemic  being  caused  by  excessive  rains 
in  the  region,  causing  flooding  of  the  lands  and  hence  an  increase 
in  the  mosquitoes.  Tne  same  condition  obtains  along  the  Magdalena 
and  other  populated  river  regions  of  the  country.  In  times  of  floods 
there  always  follows  an  epidemic  of  pernicious  malaria,  such  as  that 
of  1916  on  the  Magdalena,  which  assumed  serious  proportions  and 
caused  considerable  concern.  All  the  coast  towns  are  affected  to  a 
very  great  degree,   as  are  entire  river   valleys,    conditions    being 


POPULATION"  AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS.  43 

especially  bad  in  the  Atrato  Valley,  where  the  precipitation  is  very 
heavy  and  the  population  of  Negroes  in  a  condition  of  ignorance. 

SANITARY  MEASURES  AT  SANTA  MARTA  AND  SINCERIN. 

The  United  Fruit  Co.  at  Santa  Marta  has  made  wonderful  progress 
in  the  way  of  sanitation  and  can  be  given  the  credit  for  the  first  real 

Eractical  effort  to  combat  malaria  in  Colombia.  A  large  and  modern 
ospital  has  been  established  for  the  treatment  of  the  foreign  (Ameri- 
can) employees  and  also  the  natives,  no  one  being  barred.  The 
service  of  this  hospital  is  also  extended  to  include  the  various  planta- 
tions farther  inland  from  the  seaport  of  Santa  Marta,  and  every 
effort  is  being  made  to  educate  the  natives  and  bring  about  some  sort 
of  individual  cooperation  on  the  part  of  the  people,  which,  in  the  last 
analysis,  is  the  only  sure  method  of  keeping  this  insidious  disease 
within  bounds  where  such  conditions  obtain  as  in  many  parts  of 
Colombia.  From  a  practical  standpoint  it  is  very  good  Dusiness 
policy  for  this  company,  employing  thousands  of  men  in  the  banana 
plantations,  where  they  are  constantly  exposed  to  malarial  infec- 
tion, to  organize  and  maintain  this  sanitary  service,  since  otherwise 
the  efficiency  of  the  men  would  be  reduced  by  at  least  50  per  cent. 

Carrying  this  discussion  further,  it  may  be  said  that  no  large 
industry  or  enterprise— especially  agricultural — could  be  permanently 
successful  in  the  coast  or  river  country  unless  sanitary  measures  were 
carried  out  on  a  large  scale.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  a  small 
or  individual  effort  on  the  coast  is  almost  sure  to  be  doomed  to 
failure  and  also  why  large  enterprises  are  always  to  be  recommended. 

Aside  from  the  United  Fruit  Co.'s  hospital  and  service  at  Santa 
Marta,  there  is  only  one  other  organization  along  these  lines  in  the 
coast  regions  (or  for  that  matter  in  the  entire  country)  and  that  is  at 
the  sugar  estates  of  Sincerin  south  of  Cartagena.  Here  the  manage- 
ment, which  is  entirely  Colombian,  has  provided  a  clean  town  for  its 
workers,  who  live  in  carefully  screened  houses,  up  from  the  damp 
ground.  Medical  inspection  is  obligatory,  even  the  children  being 
watched  for  evidences  of  malaria  or  tropical  anemia  ("hookworm"). 
The  result  is  seen  in  the  fact  that  at  Sincerin  is  found  the  pick  of  the 
common  labor  of  the  district,  adding  greatly  to  the  efficiency  of  the 
organization  in  many  ways. 

MENACE  OF  MALARIA  AND  EFFORTS  TO  COMBAT  FT. 

Malaria  presents  itself  in  many  forms,  some  pernicious  and  some 
more  or  less  latent  and  modified.  All  that  local  doctors  can  do  is  to 
cure  individual  cases  in  the  more  or  less  advanced  stages,  when  the 
real  evil  lies  in  public  surroundings  and  the  lack  of  sewage,  drainage, 
and  an  intelligent  understanding  of  sanitation  on  the  part  of  the 
lower  classes  of  the  people.  Many  young  Colombian  doctors  have 
spent  years  in  study  and  clinical  work  in  Europe  and  the  United 
States  and  fully  understand  conditions,  but  are  helpless  in  the  face 
of  the  general  apathy  and  failure  to  appreciate  the  great  necessity 
for  improvements  in  the  towns  and  cities  themselves. 

Many  lumber,  mining,  and  forest-products  companies  have  been 
organized  in  the  past  to  exploit  the  natural  resources  of  the  country, 
♦and  many  have  failed  on  account  of  the  malaria  which  has  under- 
mined the  strength  of  the  foreign  managers,  killing  some  of  them 


44        COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

and  wrecking  others  physically,  the  ultimate  result  being  failure. 
Whole  American  dredging  crews  have  been  wiped  out  on  the  Atrato 
River  in  a  few  weeks  by  pernicious  malaria. 

English,  American,  and  other  foreign  mining  companies  in  the 
San  Juan  and  Atrato  River  districts  of  the  west  coast  and  in  the 
Zaragoza  district  of  Antioquia,  two  of  the  worst  malaria  localities, 
have  found  by  experience  that  malaria  may  be  held  in  check  and 
kept  within  reasonable  bounds  by  means  of  clearing  away  the  jungle 
for  a  considerable  distance  around  the  camps  or  dredgers  used  in 
these  districts  and  by  draining  or  spraying  with  oil  the  areas  of 
stagnant  water,  which  are  breeding  places  for  the  fever  mosquitoes. 
Qumine  soon  ceases  to  have  .the  desired  effect  when  once  the  fever 
has  gained  full  force,  and  is  valuable  only  as  a  specific  for  prevention. 
When  the  fever  has  gained  headway,  other  and  more  powerful 
medical  agents  have  to  be  employed,  or  the  quinine  injected  either 
interveinously  or  hypodermically  in  very  large  doses. 

Each  individual  case  is  different  in  manifestation  and  treatment 
required,  so  the  only  real  preventive  is  that  of  cleaning  up  the 
surroundings,  providing  sewage  and  drainage,  and  introducing  general 
public  sanitary  and  health  measures  having  to  do  with  the  population 
as  a  whole,  as  has  been  done  in  the  Panama  Canal  Zone. 

The  example  of  what  has  been  accomplished  on  the  Canal  Zone  by 
the  Panama  Canal  Commission  in  preventing  malaria  and  yellow 
fever,  as  well  as  the  example  of  Cuba,  shows  what  can  be  done  in 
Colombia,  given  sufficient  funds  for  the  necessary  work  and  the 
determination  to  educate  the  people.  Little  or  nothing  has  been 
done,  however.  The  National  Government  is  fully  alive  to  these  con- 
ditions and  necessities,  but  financial  difficulties  and  other  obstacles 
have  always  prevented  anything  being  done  on  a  large  scale,  though 
there  are  trained  and  experienced  men  in  the  country  competent  to 
take  charge  of  such  work. 

YELLOW-FEVER   EProEMICS— CONDniONS  AT  BUENAVENTUBA  AND   CARTAGENA. 

From  time  to  time  there  have  been  epidemics  of  yellow  fever  at 
Cartagena  and  Buenaventura,  as  well  as  at  Cucuta,  on  the  Venezuelan 
border,  and  the  strict  quarantine  regulations  enforced  from  the  Canal 
have  forced  the  Government  to  take  notice  of  conditions  and  do  some- 
thing about  them.  However,  after  the  scare  is  over  matters  usually 
resume  their  former  course. 

In  February,  1916,  the  Canal  authorities  requested  that  Colombia 
clean  up  the  Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura,  where  conditions  were  ver^^ 
bad  and  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  had  broken  out.  The  Govern- 
ment appropriated  $20,000,  and  two  experts  were  dispatched  from  the 
Canal  to  establish  a  quarantine  station  in  the  high  hills  back  of  the 
town.  Materials  also  were  sent  down,  such  as  sulphur  pyretrum, 
canvas,  screening,  and  garbage  cans.  The  epidemic  was  checked  and 
has  not  recurred,  but  Buenaventura  is  still  under  strict  c^uarantine  at 
the  Canal,  and  all  vessels  touching  there  have  to  be  fumigated  under 
the  direction  of  an  inspector  working  with  the  Canal  Sanitary  Corps. 

Cartagena  also  is  under  quarantine  by  the  Canal  and  American 

gorts;  though  it  has  been  a  number  of  years  since  yellow  fever  has 
een  epidemic  there,  it  is  known  that  there  are  always  latent  cases, 
not  virulent  but  constituting  a  real  danger. 


POPULATION   AND  LIVING   CONDITIONS*  45 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  colony  of  foreign  residents  should  take 
some  local  action  and  act  as  an  influence  to  orin^  about  needed  im- 
provements. The  difliculty  is  that  thev  are  so  Few  in  number  and 
the  local  governments  have  such  limited  funds. 

Yellow  fever,  while  a  more  deadly  disease  than  malaria,  is  only 
epidemic  and  does  not  do  as  much  damage  as  the  latter  malady. 
Malaria  is  always  present,  reinfection  constantly  takes  place  wherever 
there  are  mosquitoes  (and  no  spot  on  the  coast  is  free  from  them) ,  and 
the  very  generality  and  intangibility  of  the  causative  factors  makes 
the  disease  hard  to  combat. 

SANITARY  A>fD  HYGIENIC  MEASURES  BY  INDIVIDUALS. 

Foreigners  resident  in  Colombia  on  the  coast  or  hot  lands  of  the 
interior,  where  there  is  malaria,  should  secure  living  quarters  on  the 
second  story  (if  possible) .  Both  doors  and  windows  snould  be  wire- 
screened  and  their  closing  watched,  since  the  servants  have  no  idea  of 
what  this  means.  The  mosquito  net  should  always  be  used  on  the 
bed  and  should  be  carefully  inspected.  Rooms  should  be  selected 
facing  the  sea  (if  at  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  or  Cartagena),  so  as 
to  get  the  benefit  of  the  trade  winds,  which  carry  away  insects  such  as 
mosquitoes  and  temper  the  heat  at  night  and  during  the  day.  The 
native  custom  of  filling  the  patio  or  yard  with  all  sorts  of  plants, 
which  are  daily  deluged  with  water,  should  be  avoided,  as  these  make 
breeding  and  resting  places  for  the  mosquitoes,  which  leave  them  in 
myriads  at  nightfall.  Refuse  should  be  taken  care  of.  It.  is  very 
necessary  to  select  servants  and  household  attendants  personally, 
with  great  care,  and  to  force  them  to  keep  things  clean. 

The  matter  of  food  is.  also  of  primary  irnportance  and  is  a  hard 

?roblem  to  solve  anywhere  on  the  coast.  Food  is  badly  prepared, 
'oo  much  grease  and  too  much  meat  are  used.  Good  cooking  is  an 
unknown  art,  except  in  the  houses  of  the  wealthy.  Fresh  vegetables, 
so  necessary  in  the  Tropics,  are  almost  unknown  except  for  potatoes, 
the  ever-present  ''yucca,"  the  very  starchy  cassaba,  and  the  universal 
plantain,  which  last  is  always  palatable  and  forms  the  principal 
article  of  diet.  Milk  must  be  watched  carefully  *and  the  supply  be 
well  known.  Water  must  be  boiled  and  filtered,  as  typhoid  is  always 
present  in  the  cities  of  both  the  coast  and  the  interior.  Most  foreign 
residents  import  tinned  butter,  vegetables,  and  fruits  for  their  own 
table  use. 

Even  with  all  these  precautions  it  is  impossible  to  escape  malaria. 
In  the  evening,  when  one  is  away  from  a  screened  interior,  one's 
hands,  ankles,  neck,  and  face  are  exposed  to  the  bite  of  the  mosquito, 
and  quinine  in  some  form  is  resorted  to  as  a  specific  for  prevention. 

HEALTH  CONDITIONS  IN  THE  INTERIOR. 

In  cities  such  as  Medellin,  Manizales,  and  Bogota  there  is  no 
malaria,  as  the  fever  mosquito  does  not  breed  at  elevations  above 
5,000  feet  and  the  mountainous  nature  of  the  country  makes  the 
streams  small  and  swift,  allowing  no  collection  of  stagnant  waters. 
The  natural  drainage  is  good,  and  nature  has  provided  healthful  sur- 
roundings, in  which  the  average  European  or  American  can  live  with 
comfort  and  enjoyment,  so  far  as  climate  is  concerned.  Man,  how- 
ever, has  not  been  as  proficient  as  nature,  and  the  lack  of  sewage. 


46        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  Al^D  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

drainage,  and  a  sanitary  and  adequate  water  supply  causes  ever- 
present  typhoid  and  typhus  fever,  from  which  ricn  and  poor  suffer 
alike.  Water  is  carried  down  from  the  near-by  hills  in  open  canals 
and  becomes  contaminated  before  reaching  the  consumer.  The  av- 
erage member  of  the  public  hag  no  knowledge  of  hygiene  or  sanitation, 
and  there  is  a  constant  menace  to  health. 

IMPROVEMENTS  UNDER  WAY  OR  CONTEMPLATED. 

Improvements  are  under  way.  The  city  of  Medellin  is  completing 
a  cement  aqueduct,  and  plans  are  readv  tor  a  sewage  system.  Cali 
has  the  pipe  on  the  ground  for  a  covered  underground  water  system, 
including  sewage.  Bogota  has  endeavored  to  secure  a  foreign  loan 
of  $5,000,000  with  which  to  carry  out  improvements,  including  an 
extension  of  the  water-supply  system,  sewage,  etc. 

Very  comprehensive  plans  were  made  in  1912  by  Pierson  &  Son 
(Ltd.)  for  the  improvement  and  sanitation  of  the  port  of  Cartagena, 
including  a  sewage  system  for  the  town.  The  towns  of  the  coast, 
Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  need  such  work  more  than  the  interior 
cities,  but,  unfortunately,  these  places  have  less  municipal  revenue 
than  the  towns  of  the  interior,  on  account  of  the  more  transient  nature 
of  their  trade  and  the  greater  numbers  of  poorer  people  who  live 
there.  Barranquilla  has  the  great  swamps  of  the  Magdalena  at  its 
door,  stretching  away  to  Santa  Marta  and  south  for  a  hundred  miles. 
Cartagena  is  little  better  oflF;  it  is  immediately  on  the  sea  on  one  side, 
but  along  the  coast  to  the  south  jand  southwest  there  are  enormous 
swamps,  and  swamps  surround  the  town  on  two  sides  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity. 

However,  if  there  were  sewage  and  pavepient  in  Cartagena  itself, 
if  the  suburbs  were  cleaned  up,  if  the  shallow  swamps  were  filled  in 
with  silt  dredged  from  the  harbor,  and  if  a  campaign  were  instituted 
among  the  lower  classes  of  people,  forcing  tnem  to  use  covered 
garbage  cans  and  screened  doors  and  windows  (as  at  Panama  and 
Colon),  the  town  would  be  transformed  into  one  of  the  healthiest 
places  in  the  Tropics.  It  would  attract  thousands  of  tourists  annu- 
ally, if  good  hotels  were  provided  for  the  winter  season,  by  reason  of 
its  great  ancient  forts  and  other  features  of  historical  interest,  which 
would  well  repay  a  visit  of  a  week.  Tarpon  and  robalo  fishing  is 
very  plentiful  in  the  protected  bay,  and  there  is  an  extraordinary 
ocean  beach  over  which  an  automooile  can  be  run  for  miles,  stretch- 
ing away  to  the  northeast  of  the  city  and  terminating  at  a  picturesque 
headland.  However,  under  present  conditions,  without  sewage,  pav- 
ing, etc.,  Cartagena's  possibilities  can  not  be  realized  and  the  place 
certainly  can  not  be  recommended  as  a  health  or  tourist  resort  now. 

TRAVEL  OUTFIT,  CLOTHING,  ETC. 

To  the  salesman  or  engineer  intending  to  travel  extensively  in 
Colombia,  items  of  equipment  are  important  and  are  worthy  of  men- 
tion here.  On  account  of  the  varied  conditions  of  climate  encount- 
ered and  also  the  great  contrast  in  living  conditions  between  the  rich 
and  the  poor,  the  town  and  the  country,  as  set  forth  above,  the  outfit 
should  be  prepared  with  the  idea  in  mind  of  meeting  all  conditions 
of  the  Tropics  and  Temperate  Zones,  regardless  of  the  time  of  year 
in  which  the  trip  is  made.     The  outfit,  exclusive  of  the  samples  of 


POPIILATIOiSr   AND  LIVING   CONDITIONS.  47 

the  salesman  or  the  instruments  of  the  engineer,  may  be  enumerated 
briefly  as  follows: 

1.  The  usual  travel  outfit,  toilet  articles,  etc. 

2.  Medium-weight  and  heavy  clothing  such  as  is  worn  in  the  United  States.  This 
is  for  Manizales  and  Bogota. 

3.  Light  clothing,  suits  of  duck,  Palm  Beach,  etc.,  usually  white  in  color.  ^\Tiite 
canvas  shoes,  etc.    Straw  hat  or  Panama. 

4.  Towels,  sheets,  etc. ,  including  bath  towels.  Plenty  of  good  soap — enough  to  last 
entire  trip,  if  possible. 

5.  Folding  camp  cot  (air  mattress,  or  other  kind),  or  a  hammock,  as  some  prefer. 
Two  woolen  blankets  for  crossing  the  snow  mountains.  A  light  cotton  blanket  or*, 
cover  for  the  river.  Mosquito  bar.  Electric  torch.  Waterproof  rubber  poncho  for 
cover  when  riding  in  the  country  rains. 

6.  Medicine  outfit:  Quinine  in  some  form.  Bismuth  or  sun-cholera  mixture.  Boric 
acid  for  prickly  heat.  Ammonia.  Alcohol.  Insect  powder.  Oil  of  lavender  to  avoid 
mosquitos.  (Some  travelers  also  use  mosquito  boots  made  of  light  canvas,  and  also  a 
head  net.) 

7.  Riding  saddle  equipped  with  broad  covered  stirrups,  pockets,  etc.  Leggins, 
spurs,  halter  and  bridle,  etc. 

8.  Baggage  should  be  packed  in  small,  military-size  trunks  which  can  be  packed 
on  a  mule — two  packages  to  the  pack,  each  not  exceeding  100  pounds  in  weight  if 
good  time  is  to  be  made  in  riding  across  the  country.  All  packs  should  be  covered 
with  waterproofing  material  when  on  the  trail.  A  good  pack  is  the  rawhide  valises 
made  in  the  country  for  the  purpose.  These  are  just  the  right  size  for  a  mule  pack, 
are  cheap  and  waterproof,  and  stand  all  sorts  of  hard  usage  on  the  trail. 

Except  in  Bogota,  the  food  at  the  hotels  and  on  the  river  steamers 
is  very  poor.  A  good  supply  of  bottled  water  has  to  be  carried  on 
the  river,  and  a  supply  of  canned  fruits  and  vegetables  is  also  essen- 
tial, i 

TUBERCULOSIS. 

At  Santa  Marta  and  Barranquilla  tuberculosis  is  very  prevalent, 
possibly  because  of  the  dust  from  the  decomposed  limestone  forma- 
tion. The  natives  of  the  lower  classes  who  live  in  dark,  damp,  and 
congested  houses,  with  no  sanitary  measures,  are  subject  to  the 
scourge — so  much  so  that  in  1915  the  Government  passed  stringent 
laws  to  prevent  the  spread  of  tuberculosis.  All  doctors  were  required 
to  report  cases  coming  under  their  observation,  and  other  require- 
ments were  written  in  the  new  law. 

EDUCATION  IN  CONNECTION  WITH  HYGIENE. 

Hygiene  is  not  taught  in  the  schools,  where  much  good  might  be 
accomplished  for  the  people,  nor,  as  a  usual  thing,  is  the  example  set 
by  the  teachers.  Even  if  there  is  not  enough  money  with  which  to 
carry  out  the  sanitation  of  whole  regions,  as  on  the  Panama  Ganal, 
no  additional  cost  would  be  involved  in  teaching  and  setting  the 
example  of  hygiene  and  sanitation  in  the  public  schools. 

There  are  almost  no  good  doctors  except  in  the  larger  cities.  The 
small  country  town  or  village  is  too  often  without  any  physician  or 
with  only  indifferent  medical  talent  available. 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,  AND  NATIONAL  FINANCE. 

GOVERNMENT. 

^  By  the  constitution  adopted  August  4,  1886,  which  is  the  one  now 
in  force,  the  Republic  of  Colombia  abolished  the  Federal  Union  and 
the  sovereignty  of  the  several  Departments  or  States  and  adopted 
the  unitary  republican  form  of  government,  with  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial  branches. 

LEGISLATIVE  BRANCH. 

The  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representatives,  constituting  the 
National  Congress,  are  entrusted  with  the  legislative  power,  the 
former  chamber  consisting  of  35  members  and  the  latter  of  92  mem- 
bers. Senators  are  elected  indirectly  for  a  term  of  four  years  by 
electors  chosen  for  the  purpose,  and  representatives  are  elected  by 
the  direct  vote  of  the  people  for  a  term  of  two  years,  at  the  rate  of 
one  for  every  50,000  mhabitants.  Two  substitutes  are  elected  for 
each  senator  and  representative,  to  replace  him  in  case  of  absence 
or  inability  to  serve.  Congress  meets  every  year  at  the  national  capi- 
tal, Bogota,  on  July  20,  for  a  period  of  90  days.  It  may  prolong  its 
sessions  for  an  extra  period  of  30  days,  or  be  called  in  extra  session 
by  the  President. 

EXECUTIVE  BRANCH. 

The  President  is  elected  by  the  direct  vote  of  the  people  for  a  term 
of  four  years.  There  is  no  vice  president,  but  two  "designados" — 
first  and  second — are  elected  annually  by  Congress  to  succeed  the 
President  in  the  event  of  his  absence,  death,  or  inability  to  serve. 

The  President  is  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  eight  members,  who  are 
heads  of  their  respective  departments. 

The  Department  of  the  Interior  (Ministerio  de  Gobierno)  is  en- 
trusted With  the  administration  of  the  various  Departments  and 
National  Territories,  the  post  and  telegraph  offices,  the  hospitals 
and  charitable  institutions,  sanitation,  and  the  maintenance  of  public 
health;  also  of  the  courts  and  penal  institutions,  since  Colombia  has 
no  Department  of  Justice.  This  department  is  charged  with  the 
supervision  of  the  press  of  the  country.  The  rural  and  national  police 
also  come  under  its  jurisdiction. 

The  Department  of  Foreign  Affairs  (Ministerio  de  Relaeionos 
Exteriores)  has  charge  of  the  diplomatic  and  consular  corps  and  the 
maintenance  of  foreign  relations  through  them,  as  Well  as  the  settle- 
ment of  international  boundary  disputes. 

The  Department  of  Finance  (Ministerio  de  Hacienda)  collects  and 
disburses  all  public  funds,  has  charge  of  the  service  of  the  public 
debt,  of  the  customhouses,  and  of  the  internal-revenue  offices,  and 
controls  the  valuable  salt  and  emerald  deposits. 

The  War  Department  (Ministerio  de  Guerra)  has  charge  of  all 
matters  pertaining  to  the  army  and  the  navy,  and  attends  to  the  in- 

48 


GOVERNMENT,   EDUCATION,  AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  49 

stniction  and  training  of  citizens  of  the  reserve  forces  of  the  country. 
The  miUtary  and  naval  colleges  are  also  under  its  control. 

The  Department  of  Public  Instruction  (Ministerio  de  Instruccion 
Publica)  exercises  supervision  and  control  over  the  public  schools, 
high  schools,  colleges,  normal  schools,  and  institutes  for  special  in- 
struction, among  the  last-named  being  the  National  School  of  Com- 
merce, the  National  School  of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  National  Academy 
of  Music.  It  also  has  control  of  the  National  Museum,  the  National 
Library,  and  the  National  Observatory.  Also,  through  its  various 
sanitary  commissions  and  health  boards,  it  frequently  intervenes  in 
•matters  concerning  the  public  health. 

The  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce  (Ministerio  de  Agri- 
cultura  V  Comercio)  is  charged  with  the  work  of  promoting  agricul- 
ture and  commerce  in  the  broadest  sense.  Among  its  duties  are  the 
encouragement  of  education  in  all  branches  of  agriculture,  veterinary 
science,  and  horticulture,  the  establishment  of  practical  and  experi'^ 
mental  schools,  and  the  administration  and  development  of  national 
forests  and  mines.  Under  the  heading  of  commerce  comes  the  study 
and  control  of  savings  banks,  chambers  of  commerce,  patents  and 
trade-marks,  weights  and  measures,  and  investigations  of  economic 
and  commercial  needs,  costs  of  transportation  and  insurance,  pro- 
duction and  consumption  statistics,  imports  and  exports,  crop  zones 
and  areas,  and  rents  and  property  movements. 

The  Department  of  Public  Works  (Ministerio  de  Obras  Publicas) 
is  entrusted  with  the  encouragement  and  regulation  of  manufactur- 
ing industries,  mines,  agriculture,  forests,  and  public  lands,  the  regu- 
lation of  navigation,  the  administration  of  the  national  railways,  the 
construction  and  maintenance  of  roads,  bridges,  public  buildings, 
and  other  public  works. 

The  Department  of  the  Treasury  (Ministerio  del  Tesoro)  is  charged 
with  all  matters  pertaining  to  the  budget.  It  also  has  charge  of  the 
mints,  the  printing  and  issuance  of  bank  notes,  and  the  emission  of 
bonds. 

JXJDICIAL  BRANCH. 

The  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  is  vested  with  the  judiciary  power  of 
the  Republic  and  consists  of  nine  magistrates;  the  judicial  system, 
also  includes  a  superior  tribunal  for  each  Department  (State)  and  a 
number  of  minor  judges.  The  Supreme  Court  is  elected  by  Congress 
(from  names  siabmitted  to  it  by  the  President)  for  a  period  of  five 
years.  The  justices  of  the  superior  tribunals  of  the  Departments  are 
elected  by  the  members  of  the  Supreme  Court  for  a  period  of  four 
years  and  are  chosen  from  names  suggested  by  the  respective  depart- 
mental  assemblies. 

MILITABY  FORCE. 

The  permanent  army  of  Colombia  consists  of  about  6,000  men. 
The  President  is,  however,  authorized  to  increase  this  number  to 
20,000  men  in  case  of  public  necessity.  The  total  war  strength  of 
the  armed  force,  includmg  trained  reserves,  is  estimated  at  120,000. 
The  military  service  is  compulsory  in  the  sense  that  the  standing 
army  is  drafted  by  lot,  one  tnird  every  year,  so  that  the  entire  army 
is  renewed  every  third  year. 

37558°— 21 4 


50        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Three  gunboats  perform  coast-guard,  revenue-cutter  service  along 
the  coasts.  More  small  cutters  are  needed  for  the  proper  guarding 
of  the  Caribbean  coast  against  smuggling. 

CONSULAR  AND   DIPLOMATIC  CORPS— FOREIGN  REPRESENTATIVES  IN  COLOMBIA. 

Colombia  maintains  diplomatic  representatives  in  the  United 
States,  England,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Ecuador,  Venezuela, 
Chile,  Peru,  and  at  the  Holy  See. 

A  minister  is  maintained  at  Washington,  a  consul  general  at  New 
York,  and  consuls  at  Mobile,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
Seattle,  Los  Angeles,  Baltimore,  Boston,  Newark,  St.  Louis,  Cincin- 
nati, Philadelphia,  Norfolk  (Va.),  and  in  Ponce  and  San  Juan,  in 
Porto  Rico.  Vice  consuls  are  maintained  at  New  York,  New  Orleans, 
and  Norfolk  and  a  consular  agent  at  Gulf  port  (Miss.).  There  is  also 
a  postal  agent  who  acts  as  vice  consul  at  Colon  and  Panama  City, 
Panama. 

The  United  States  maintains  a  minister  at  Bogota  and  has  consuls 
at  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  with  consular  agents  at  Santa  Marta, 
Medellin,  and  Buenaventura. 

Other  foreign  countries  that  maintain  legations  in  Colombia  are 
Great  Britain,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Chile, 
Cuba,  Ecuador,  Italy,  Mexico  (assigned  to  Venezuela  also),  Peru, 
Venezuela,  and  the  Holy  See.  The  countries  that  have  consuls  at 
Bogota  are  Germany,  Argentina,  Austria,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Costa 
Rica,  Chile,  Denmark,  Guatemala,  the  Netherlands,  Mexico,  Norway, 
Paraguay,  Peru,  Portugal,  Salvador,  the  Dominican  Republic,  Sweden, 
Uruguay,  and  Venezuela. 

The  countries  that  have  consuls  at  Santa  Marta  are  Chile,  France, 
Great  Britain,  Norway,  and  Spain. 

The  countries  that  have  consuls  at  Barranquilla  are  Germany, 
Argentina,  Belgium,  Bolivia,  Brazil,  Costa  Rica,  Chile,  Cuba,  Ecua- 
dor, Spain,  France,  the  Netherlands,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Mexico, 
and  Norway. 

The  countries  that  have  consuls  at  Cartagena  are  Germany,  ^Vrgen- 
tina,  Belgium,  Costa  Rica,  Ecuador,  Spain,  France,  Guatemala,  the 
Netherlands,  Honduras,  Great  Britain,  Italy,  Mexico,  Nicaragua, 
Norway,  and  Sweden. 

The  countries  that  have  consuls  or  consular  agents  in  Buenaven- 
tura are  Spain,  the  United  States,  France,  Peru,  and  Great  Britain. 

The  countries  that  have  consuls  or  consular  agents  in  Cucuta  are 
Germany,  Cuba,  Italy,  and  Venezuela. 

The  countries  that  have  consular  agents  in  Medellin  are  the  United 
States,  Great  Britain,  Ecuador,  Spain,  and  France. 

France  has  a  consular  representative  in  Rio  Hacha. 

The  countries  that  have  consular  representatives  in  Pasto  are 
Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain. 

Great  Britain  also  has  consular  agents  in  Honda  and  CaU,  as  have 
Germany  and  France. 

CONSTITUTION. 

The  early  constitution  of  Colombia,  like  those  of  so  many  of  the 
Latin  American  nations,  was  modeled  on  that  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  present  constitutional  structure,  notwithstanding  the  change 
from  State  sovereignty  to  the  centralized  system,  bears  many  points 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,   AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  51 

'  of  resemblance  to  the  fundamental  charter  of  the  United  States. 
(See  "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  pp.  56-71.) 

However,  as  writers  have  pointed  out,  the  old  foundation  was  the 
Spanish  civil  law,  and  this  fundamental  influence  is  still  felt.  The 
ministers  are  appointed  by  the  President  and  are  freely  removable 
by  him,  though  responsible  to  the  legislature,  in  whose  deliberations 
they  participate.     In  actual  practice  the  executive  power  is  much 

freater  than  all  others.  Governors  of  Departments  are  appointed 
y  the  President,  and  they  in  turn  appoint  and  control  prefects  of 
the  Provinces  and  alcaldes  of  the  municipalities.  The  power  of  the 
departmental  assemblies  and  municipal  boards,  electecl  by  popular 
vote,  is  nominal,  considering  the  direct  interest  of  the  executive 
department.  The  municipal  boards  or  town  councils  are  usually 
made  up  of  merchants  and  professional  men  of  the  community,  and 
do  very  well  within  their  limited  powers.  The  prefects  and  alcaldes 
are  usually  politicians  and  adherents  of  the  Government. 

TAXATION  AND  REVENUES. 

There  is  no  adequate  system  of  internal  taxation,  the  principal 
revenues  of  the  Government  being  derived  from  the  duties  levied  on 
imports  into  the  country,  which  are  very  heavy,  averaging  year  by 
year  about  42  per  cent  of  the  invoice  value  oi  the  goods  imported 
and  amounting  to  at  least  75  per  cent  of  the  total  national  revenue. 
There  is  also  tne  revenue  derived  from  the  national  monopoly  of  the 
salt  mines  and  emerald  mines  and  the  small  tax  on  such  exports  as 
coffee,  gold,  platinum,  etc.  Other  sources  of  income  are  the  stamp 
tax  (so  much  used  in  Latin  America  but  more  or  less  ignored  in  Col- 
ombia), the  fluvial  tax  for  river  and  harbor  improvement  work,  and 
the  earnings  of  railways  owned  or  controlled  by  the  Government. 
Other  sources  of  income  are  negligible. 

Formerly  the  National  Government  also  controlled  the  tobacco  tax, 
the  liquor  tax,  and  the  slaughter  tax,  but  these  revenues  have  had 
to  be  turned  over  to  the  Departments  and  now  constittlte  the  prin- 
cipal income  from  which  the  Departments,  no  longer  seeking  the 
usual  assistance  from  the  Government  in  Bogota,  are  paying  their 
own  way  and,  in  some  cases,  accumulating  surpluses  with  which  to 
carry  out  road  building  and  other  much-needed  public  improvements. 

CODES  OF  LAW. 

Concerning  the  laws  of  Colombia,  the  following  may  be  quoted 
from  ''Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  pages  69-70: 

French  and  Spanish  legal  influences  are  predominant  in  shaping  the  laws  of  the 
country.  The  writings  of  the  English,  German,  and  American  jurists  are  scarcely 
known,  except  as  the\  filter  through  French  sources.  French  commentators  are 
regarded  as  high  authority  and  usually  control  the  decisions  of  the  courts  where  the 
Colombian  codes  are  obscure.'  This  is  very  natural,  as  the  basic  one  of  these  codes, 
the  Ci^'il  Code,  is  largely  founded  on  the  Code  Napoleon.  The  Colombian  code  is  a 
copy,  for  the  most  part,  of  the  Chilean  code,  modeled  after  the  French  code,  but  im- 
proved upon. 

'  The  principal  Colombian  codes  have  been  translated  into  English  as  follows:  By  F.  L.  Joannini,  "The 
Civil  Code  of  Panama  in  Force  in  the  Canal  Zone"  and  "  The  Law  of  Civil  Procedure  in  Force  in  Panama 
and  the  Canal  Zone"  (apart  of  the  Judicial  Code),  published  by  the  Isthmian  Canal  Commission,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C,  1905;  by  Edward  S.  Cox-Sinclair,  "The  Commerical  Laws  of  the  World,"  Vol.  II,  "Colom- 
bia," edited  by  Dr.  A.  J.  Uribe  (London  and  Boston,  1912):  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  "Mining  Laws  of  the 
Republic  of  Colombia"  (Washington,  D.  C,  1912).  The  remaining  codes  not  mentioned  in  the  above  text 
of  tnis  note  are  chiefly  administrative,  viz,  the  Fiscal  Code,  the  Military  Code,  the  Code  of  "Fomento," 
the  Police  Code,  and  the  Code  of  Public  Instruction. — Phanor  J.  Eder,  ''Colombia." 


52         COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  Ctimmercial  Codes  (there  are  two,  one  dealing  with  maritime  law  especially) 
are  based  on  the  Spanish  law,  with  French  inlluences  throughout.  They  could  be 
reWeed  wdth  profit  to  meet  modern  commercial  conditions;  they  are  pervaded  by  a 
certain  formalism,  not  consistent  with  the  elasticity  and  freedom  which  modern  busi- 
ness development  requires  and  which  is  consequently  evaded  or  neglected  in  actual 
practice.  Separate  commercial  tribunals  have  not  been  established,  although  pro- 
vided for  in  the  Constitution,  and  the  collection  of  debts,  the  settlement  of  business  dis- 
putes, and  the  winding  iip  of  insoh'ont  estates  is  a  lon^,  tedious  prfjcess;  if  im])rovc- 
ments  were  made,  no  doubt  Colombian  merchants  could  secure  better  credit  abroad. 

The  various  laws,  fundamental  and  recent,  pertaining  to  lands 
and  agriculture  will  be  mentioned  in  the  chapter  devoted  to  agri- 
culture in  this  report,  and  a  sim.ilar  procedure  will  be  followed  in  the 
case  of  laws  on  petroleum  and  mining. 

Pertinent  laws  governing  commerce  and  business  w^ll  be  treated 
in  the  chapter  of  this  report  dealing  with  trade,  in  which  will  also 
be  covered  items  referring  to  customs  regulations,  "to-order  ship- 
ments," insurance,  installment-plan  sales,  etc. 

EDUCATION. 

PUBUC  SCHOOL  SYSTEM. 

The  public  school  system  of  Colombia  was  established  in  the 
seventies  of  the  last  century,  but  has  had  many  setbacks  and  is 
only  now  beginning  to  be  increased  to  any  extent.  According  to 
the  law,  attendance  on  the  public  schools  is  free,  but  not  obligatory. 
Primary  education  is  under  the  direction  of  the  Departments  and 
the  municipalities,  which  have  to  provide  the  buildings,  the  equip- 
ment, and  the  pay  of  the  teachers.  In  the  larger  towns  and  cities 
there  is  a  fair  chance  for  the  children  to  receive  at  least  primary 
instruction. 

The  number  of  primary  students  increased  by  about  13  per  cent 
from  1911  to  1918,  while  the  increase  in  population  between  the 
census  of  1912  and  that  of  1918  was  at  least  10  per  cent  for  the 
entire  country  and  at  least  20  per  cent  in  the  coast  regions  of  Bar- 
ranquilla  and  Cartagena. 

There  is  an  elaborate  sanitary  code  for  the  schools,  but  very 
unhygienic  conditions  are  allowed  to  prevail  in  the  schoolhouses 
and  out  of  them,  and  the  elements  of  hygiene  are  not  taught,  even 
by  example.  This  condition  is  especially  true  of  the  to^\^ls  of  the 
interior. 

The  fundamental  law  in  Colombia  provides  that  all  education 
shall  be  organized  and  directed  in  accordance  wdth  the  Catholic 
religion.  Public  advertisements  call  the  attention  of  the  teachers, 
directors j  professors,  etc.,  of  all  public  and  private  schools  and 
colleges  to  the  obligatorjr  profession  of  faith. 

The  neglect  of  the  sciences  in  favor  of  the  humanities  in  early 
studies  has  its  effect  upon  the  intellectual  life  of  the  country. 
Another  phase  of  the  general  neglect  of  the  sciences  is  the  total 
lack  of  agricultural  colleges,  which,Jn  this  rich  agricultural  country, 
are  urgently  needed,  ui  this  same  connection  may  be  cited  the 
absence  of  manual  training  in  the  primary  and  secondary  schools. 
There  is  a  lack  of  mechanics  and  artisans  in  the  country. 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,   AND  NATIONAL.  FINANCE.  53 

INFLUENCE  OF  YOUNG  MEN  WITH  AMERICAN  TRAINING. 

An  element  that  is  beginning  to  make  itself  felt  in  Colombia  (and 
whose  influence  is  much  stronger  than  is  generally  realized)  is  that 
of  the  young  men  who  have  come  to  the  United  States  to  study  or 
engage  in  business  or  work  in  the  factories.  These  young  men, 
recruited  from  the  middle  and  upper  classes,  represent  the  most 
courageous  and  independent  element  of  the  country,  and  there  are 
said  to  be  about  16,000  of  them  in  and  around  New  York  City  alone, 
with  others  scattered  throughout  the  United  States  in  industrial  and 
educational  centers. 

These  men  return  to  their  country  thoroughly  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  progress  and  ambition  and  bring  with  fhem  many  ideas  of 
practical  work  and  progress,  and  it  is  through  these  j^oung  men  that 
there  exists  in  Colombia  to-day  a  changing  thought  and  a  spirit  of 
progress  on  a  practical  basis.  Their  influence  will  be  felt  more  and 
more  as  time  goes  on. 

On  every  hand  the  effect  of  this  contact  with  American  methods 
and  organization  are  apparent.  The  young  Colombian  who  has 
worked  in  the  factories  oi  the  United  States  returns  to  his  district 
with  ideas  of  starting  a  new  industry,  and  the  result  is  seen  in  new 
factories.  Stock  companies  are  formed  for  the  purpose,  and  these 
new  industries  have,  almost  without  exception,  been  very  prosperous. 

EDUCATIONAL  STATISTICS. 

In  1912  the  number  of  schools  of  every  kind,  public  and  private, 
was  4,371,  with  272,873  students'. 

The  school  system  of  the  country  is  under  the  supervision  of  the 
Minister  of  Public  Instruction,  and  the  National  Govenunent  fur- 
nishes the  textbooks,  supplies,  and  appliances,  while  the  Depart- 
ments and  municipalities  lurnish  the  buildings  and  pay  the  teachers. 
Appropriations  of  the  Departments  are  very  inadequate,  with  the 
notable  exceptions  of  Antioquia,  Caldas,  and  El  Valle,  where,  in  the 
larger  towns  and  cities  practically  all  of  the  children  of  school  age 
are  attending  the  public  and  religious  schools  and  at  least  learning 
to  read  and  write.  In  1918  the  pupils  in  the  public  schools  of  the 
municipality  of  Medellin  included  17.1  per  cent  of  the  population, 
which,  compared  with  19.65  per  cent  in  the  United  States  in  1908, 
speaks  very  favorably  for  primary  education  in  this  progressive 
Department  of  Colombia.  In  1918  7.31  per  cent  throughout  the 
entire  Department  of  Antioquia  were  attending  school,  as  compared 
\vith  an  average  of  only  about  3  per  cent  for  the  rest  of  the  country 
outside  of  the  Departments  of  Caldas  and  El  Valle. 

Along  with  the  Government  public  schools  there  flourish  in  the 
larger  towns  the  parochial  schools  taught  by  the  priests  and  nuns, 
as  well  as  a  few  private  schools.  It  is  to  these  schools  that  people 
of  the  well-to-do  class  send  their  children. 


54 


COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK. 


Ill  1912  the  primary  schools  were  as  follows  (no  detailed  figures 
are  available  for  1918): 


Departments. 


An  tioquia 

Atlnntieo 

IJolivar 

Boyaca 

Caldas 

Caiica 

Ciiiidinamarca 

Hiiila 

Mapdalcua 

Narino 

Norte  de  Saiitander 

Saiitander 

Tolima 

ElValle 

Total  public  schools 
Private  schools 

Grand  total 


Number  of 
schools. 


640 
67 
208 
346 
248 
138 
563 
124 
104 
176 
153 
389 
206 
285 


3,656 
354 


4,010 


Number  of 
pupils. 


54,263 

4,273 

11,871 

17, 577 

24,556 

0,382 

27,027 

7,589 

4,614 

15,103 

10,566 

14,614 

0,062 

18,925 


229,422 
13,584 


243,006 


Percentage 

of  total 
population. 


7.31 
3.71 
2.77 
2. 9.-| 
7.59 
4.43 
3. 7.1 
4.77 
3.61 
5.33 
5.16 
3.65 
3.19 
8.16 


5.15 


The  Department  of  El  Valle,  with  a  total  budget  for  the  year 
1919-20  of  1,154,780  Colombian  dollars  (I  dollar  =  $0.9733  United 
States  currency),  appropriated  162,461  dollars  for  public  instruc- 
tion, and  the  governor  has  strongly  recommended  a  system  of  more 
practical  education  along  industrial  lines.  The  fact  that  the  young 
men  prefer  political  and  literary  pursuits  to  engineering  or  agricul- 
ture is  unfortunate  in  a  country  so  greatly  in  need  of  development 
and  presenting  all  sorts  of  problems  in  sanitation,  engineering,  indus- 
try, and  transportation.  With  no  lack  of  native  talent  or  native 
intelligence,  experts  have  had  to  be  imported  from  foreign  countries 
to  solve  the  economic  problems  of  the  country,  and  great  oppor- 
tunities for  the  development  of  rich  natural  resources  go  unnoticed 
and  belittled  by  the  Colombians  themselves.  , 

HIGHER  EDUCATION. 

The  secondary,  or  high,  schools,  called  "colegios,"  are  too  few  in 
number  for  the  attendance  offered  and  are  found  only  in  the  larger 
cities.  There  are  230  of  these  high  schools  throughout  the  country, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  approximately  20,000.  The  largest  are 
San  Bartolome  and  the  School  of  Commerce  in  Bogota,  each  with 
more  than  600  students. 

In  all  Colombia  there  are  9  normal  schools  for  men  and  12  for 
women,  for  the  education  and  training  of  the  primary-school  teachers, 
these  institutions  being  maintained  at  a  total  annual  cost  of  about 
$180,000.     Their  equipment  is  very  poor,  lacking  laboratories,  etc. 

The  national  institutions  of  higher  learning  are  the  National 
'  University,  the  new  Medical  College  (not  yet  finished),  the  Conserva- 
tory of  Music,  and  the  National  Art  School,  all  at  Bogota. 

There  are  also  departmental  universities  at  Medellin,  Popayan, 
Cartagena,  and  Pasto,  and  the  National  School  of  Mines  at  Medellin. 
The  largest  is  the  departmental  university  of  Cartagena,  with  260 
students  (1918)  in  three  faculties — law,  medicine,  and  philosophy. 
The   chief  reason  for   the  small  importance  of  the  departmental 


GOVERNMENT,   EDTJCATION,   AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  55 

universities  is  the  universal  preference  for  the  National  University 
at  Bogota  on  account  of  its  higher  cultural  attainments.  The  law- 
faculties  overshadow  all  others,  with  medicine  second  in  importance, 
and  the  literary  and  journalistic  lines  are  overcrowded  in  Colombia, 
where  they  represent  the  predominating  public  influence. 

CHARACTER    OF    PERIODICALS— GENERAL    CULTURAL    POSITION     OF    COLOMBIA. 

Periodicals  are  scarcely  newspapers;  they  usually  represent  the 
personality  of  one  man  and  are  published  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
expressing  his  political  views,  containing  also  much  poetry,  but  show- 
ing a  decided  dearth  of  cable  news  or  natural  items  of  import  other 
than  political.  Colombia's  public  men  have  nearly  always  been 
men  of  letters  or  journalists. 

The  people  take  great  pride  in  the  fact  that  purer  Spanish  is  used 
in  Colombia  than  in  any  other  Latin  American  country,  and  Bogota 
is  called  by  the  Colombians'  "  the  Athens  of  America."  A  favorite 
way  of  spending  an  evening  in  Bogota  is  at  a  recital  of  local  poets,  in 
which  keen  interest  is  manifested.  However,  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  is  bringing  about  a  more  definitely  practical  era  of 
progress  and  attention  to  the  development  of  natural  and  industrial 
resources.  Colombian  engineers  leave  nothing  to  be  desired  so  far  as 
their  technical  education  is  concerned;  what  is  needed  is  a  greater 
degree  of  practical  field  experience. 

NATIONAL  FINANCES. 

In  times  past  the  paper  money  of  Colombia  represented  the  most 
serious  problem  of  the  country.  It  constituted  a  damper  on  com- 
merce and  industry,  and,  on  account  of  its  violent  fluctuations  in 
exchange  value,  a  very  real  danger  in  trade.  However,  great  strides 
have  been  made  to  correct  this  condition,  and  at  the  present  time 
Colombia's  monetary  system  leaves  little  to  be  desired  and  a  sound 
financial  basis  is  being  rapidly  approached. 

Out  of  Colombia's  former  difficulties  grew  the  necessity  of  com- 

Eromising  the  foreign  debt  of  the  country  with  the  foreign  bond- 
olders,  and  the  resulting  lack  of  confidence  in  the  past  has  held  the 
nation  back  from  the  full  measure  of  advancement  that  could  have 
been  attained  with  ample  foreign  capital. 

This  condition  had  been  rapidly  improving  after  the  end  of  the 
last  domestic  disturbance  in  1903,  and  renewed  interest  in  Colombia 
was  beginning  to  be  manifested  by  European  and  American  capital 
when  the  advent  of  the  Great  War  put  a  stop  to  any  development 
in  this  line.  Since  the  termination  of  the  war  conditions  have  greatly 
improved. 

In  spite  of  grave  internal  disorders  and  successive  crises  brought 
about  bv  the  paper  currency  during  the  period  up  to  1903,  the  ex- 
ports of  Colombia  have  steadily  increased  in  tonnage  and  value 
(see  p.  311),  and,  during  the  war  and  immediately  after  it,  the  high 
prices  obtained  for  exports  and  the  heavy  coffee  crop  of  1919  (sold 
at  extraordinarily  high  prices  in  New  York)  have  materially  added 
to  the  prosperity  of  the  country  in  general.  Another  factor  has  been 
the  establishment  of  American  banks  in  the  country,  affording  a 
medium  of  investment  advice  and  guidance  and  lowering  the  rate  of 
interest  locally.     Still  another  factor  has  been  the  influx  of  gold 


66        COLOMBIA:   A   rOMMERCTAI.  AND  INDUSTRIAI^   HANDBOOK. 

from  the  United  States  during  1919  and  the  exchange  situation  with 
foreign  countries,  which  has  operated  to  keep  the  domestic  produc- 
tion of  gold  (about  $4,000,000  per  year)  in  tRe  country  for  coinage, 
whereas  it  was  formerly  exported. 

The  old  paper  money,  whose  value  was  in  the  ratio  of  100  to  1 
after  it  had  been  stabilized  by  the  Government,  has  been  taken  up 
and  a  new  paper  currency  issued  (see  p.  58),  but  during  the  war  the 
National  Government  was  forced  to  use  for  immediate  needs  the 
reserve  behind  this  issue,  thus  leaving  this  issue  without  metallic 
backing  and  causing  the  Government  to  be  unable  to  issue  more 
money  to  meet  the  fast-growing  demands  of  Colombian  business. 

The  retention  for  domestic  coinage  of  gold  produced  in  the  country, 
the  influx  of  American  gold  coin  during  1919,  and  the  increase  m 
revenue  received  by  the  National  Government  during  1919  on  account 
of  the  increase  in  imports,  give  the  country  a  more  sound  financial 
basis  and  one  on  which  to  work  out  the  national  monetary  problem, 
by  increasing  the  circulating  medium  of  the  country  to  a  point  where 
it  becomes  adequate  for  business  needs. 

HISTORY  OF  COLOMBIAN  FINANCES  AND  BANKING. 

In  order  to  understand  the  financial  needs  to-day,  it  is  necessary  to 
have  some  knowledge  of  the  past  history  of  finance  in  Colombia  and 
of  the  many  financial  crises  and  vicissitudes  through  which  the  coun- 
try has  passed.  The  following  is  quoted  from  "  Colombia,"  by  Phanor 
J.  Eder  (written  in  1911-12): 

Till  about  1881,  Colombia  had  been  on  a  bimetallic  basis;  the  currency  of  the 
country  was  gold  and  silver,  and  there  was  no  paper.  For  some  years  pre\'ioualy 
•  prosperity  reigned;  the  exports  were  relatively  large.  But  in  1883,  notwithstanding 
the  gold  basis,  foreign  exchange  was  at  a  premium  of  20  per  cent.  There  was  a  finan- 
cial crisis.  One  of  the  principal  exports  had  been  "cinchona"  bark  (quinine);  in 
1875  over  £2,000.000  of  that  article  alone  had  been  exported,  but  the  enormous 
product  from  cultivation  in  Java  and  the  British  East  Indies  reduced  the  price; 
whereas  in  1879  the  sulphate  of  quinine  had  reached  the  high  price  of  16s.  6d.  an  ounce, 
in  1883  it  had  dropped  to  3s.  6d,  (In  1885  the  price  had  dropped  to  as  low  as  2s.  6d. 
an  ounce  and  the  "cinchona"  trade  received  its  death  blow  in  Colombia.)  The  low 
prices  of  coffee  and  tobacco,  the  other  chief  exports  of  the  country,  added  to  the 
gravity  of  the  situation.  The  balance  of  trade  was  against  Colombia.  Alreadj  there 
had  been  a  steady  and  progressive  exportation  of  gold  currency,  as  free  coinage  of 
both  gold  and  silver  was  allowed,  and  the  value  of  silver  as  legal  tender  and  as  pre- 
scribed by  law  was  higher  thanits  market  value.  Soon ,  little  gold  being  left,  the  silver 
money,  too,  began  to  leave  the  country.  It  is  said  that  during  the  crisis  of  1883  the 
money  in  circulation  in  Bogota,  the  capital,  a  city  of  100,000  inhabitants  at  that  time, 
was  reduced  to  as  low  as  $200,000.  Private  banks  began  to  abuse  the  right  which 
the  law  allowed  them  to  issue  notes,  and  still  further  contributed  to  the  elimination 
of  metallic  currency. 

After  the  triumph  of  Nuiiez  in  *  *  *  1885  *  *  *  it  was  decreed  that,  dating  from 
May  1,  1886,  the  monetary  unit  of  the  country  should  be  the  dollar  (peso)  bill  of  the 
national  bank.  The  Banco  Nacional  was  an  institution  founded  with  enormous 
privileges  in  1880  by  Nunez;  its  shares  had  been  offered  to  the  public,  but  none  were 
taken;  the  Government  became  the  sole  owner,  investing  $1,047,009.30  out  of  an 
authorized  capital  of  $2,500,000.  It  was  given  and  availed  itself  of  the  right  to  issue 
bills  redeemable  in  specie.  In  1886,  however,  it  was  granted  the  right  to  issue  $4,000,000 
in  bills  without  any  obligation  to  so  redeem  them.  This  was  the  beginning  of  liat 
money  in  Colombia.  I3y  the  law  of  1881,  private  banks  were  bound  to  accept  the 
national  bank  bills  at  their  face  value,  under  penalty  of  losing  their  own  right  to 
issue  notes.  Worst  of  all,  it  was  prohibited  by  law  to  make  contracts,  either  k  :  cash 
or  credit,  in  any  other  money. 

In  spite  of  this  unsound  basis  and  a  mass  of  confusing  laws  and  decrees,  the  country 
did  not  materially  suffer  for  a  number  of  years.    There  was  no  excessive  issue  of 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,   AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  57 

I>aper  money,  although  the  amount  kept  on  steadily  increasing.  It  enjoyed  a  certain 
credit,  as  it  was  deemed  to  be  ultimately,  even  if  not  immediately,  redeemable; 
exchange  did  not  greatly  fluctuate,  and  paper  was  at  almost  a  parity  with  silver. 

Nickel  pieces  were  coined,  and  there  was  free  coinage  of  silver,  but  at  .500  fine. 
In  1892  the  President's  message  reported  the  base  money  in  circulation  in  the  country 
to  be  as  follows: 

Dollars. 

National  Bank  bills....'. 12, 000, 000 

Silver  coins  .500  fine 4,  243,  298 

Nickel 3,427,298 

Besides  this  there  was  a  considerable  amount,  believed  to  be  some  $2,000,000,  of 
paper  money  illegally  issued.  Issues  continued.  In  1894  a  law  was  passed  prohibit- 
ing any  new  issue,  except  in  case  of  foreiqn  war  or  internal  disturbance.  *  *  *  In 
1895  *  *  *  the  privilege  was  availed  of.  When  Caro  went  out  of  office  in  1898 
there  was  in  circulation,  in  round  numbers,  $31,400,000  of  Banco  Nacional  bills. 

EFFECT   OP    DISTURBANCES    BEGINNING   IN    1899. 

The  next  year  a  revolution  broke  out  *  *  *  t^^q  Government  needed  money 
*  *  *  to  cany  on  the  war.  The  printing  presses  were  at  hand.  *  *  * 
Paper  money  was  issued,  not  merely  by  the  millions,  but  by  tens  and  hundreds  of 
millions.  The  National  Government  issued  it.  The  Departments  i.ssued  it.  Even 
some  generals  in  the  field  issued  it.  The  rate  of  exchange,  which  had  been  from  300 
to  335  before  the  revolution  (that  is,  the  paper  dollar  had  been  worth  about  30  cents 
gold,  almost  on  a  parity  with  the  silver  dollar)  began  to  go  up  and  up.  In  1900  ex- 
change rose  above  1,000;  the  paper  dollar  was  worth  10  cents  gold.  By  the  end  of  1901 
it  had  reached  5,000 ;  the  [paper  dollar]  was  then  worth  only  2  cent3.  The  most  violent 
fluctuations  occurred^thousands  of  points  a  day,  with  the  various  successes  or 
rumors  of  defeat  of  the  Government.  In  1902  matters  became  even  worse;  exchange 
rose  at  one  time  to  as  high  as  26,000;  the  value  of  the  paper  peso  was  then  merely  the 
fraction  of  a  cent.  But  the  Government  was  winning.  Exchange  began  to  drop. 
At  the  end  of  the  war  ( 1903)  it  was  impossible  to  tell  how  much  paper  money  was  out- 
standing-— what  with  the  various  issues  and  the  amounts  of  counterfeits,  often  better 
engraved  than  the  genuine.  The  amount  was  certainly  not  less  than  a  billion;  the 
national  issues  alone,  since  1885,  amounted  to  $740,801,420  p/m.  [Note:  P/m 
means  "papel  moneda"  or  paper  money.]  There  was  no  hope,  no  pretence  that  this 
would  ever  be  redeemable,  but  it  was  legal  tender.  Old  debts  were  paid  off  in  this 
depreciated  currency.  The  creditor  who  had  loaned  a  thousand  dollars  gold  *  *  * 
was  by  law  compelled  to  receive  a  thousand  pesos  paper  money— worth  ten  dollars 
in  gold. 

In  the  absence  of  gold  and  silver  money,  which  had  entirely  disappeared,  except 
in  a  few  privileged  regions  (the  Choco,  Pasto,  and  the  frontier  towns,  where  the  inhab- 
itants had  obstinately  declined  to  receive  paper  money),  some  medium  of  exchange 
was  necessarJ^  By  a  sort  of  common  consent  the  paper  was  received  in  trade  after 
the  revolution  at  a  rate  of  exchange  fluctuating  around  10,000 — about  1  cent  on  the 
dollar.     *    *    * 

REMEDIAL   MEASURES    ADOPTED THE    BANCO    CENTRAL. 

A  remedy  for  the  more  pressing  evils  had  to  be  found.  A  law  passed  in  October, 
1903,  *  *  *  prolul)ited  further  issues  of  paper  money  and  fixed  the  rate  of 
exchange;  fixed  a  gold  standard;  permitted  the  circulation  of  foreign  money,  and 
permitted  full  freedom  of  contract  to  stipulate  for  payment  either  gold  or  paper  ("  libre 
estipulacion");  and,  finally,  created  a  Council  or  Junta  of  Amortization.  This  board 
was  authorized  to  collcf-t  certain  national  revenues,  some  of  which  were  payable  in 
gold,  and  it  was  its  duty  to  auction  the  gold  so  received  and  to  destroy  the  paper 
thus  received  as  the  purchase  price  of  the  gold,  as  well  as  that  received  in  payment 
of  certain  other  revenues  payable  in  paper. 

By  this  law,  too,  customs  duties  could  be  paid  either  in  gold  or  (most  important 
privilege)  in  paper  money  at  the  current  rate  of  exchange.  Some  tangible  value  was 
at  last  given.  The  Junta  de  Amortizacion  performed  its  duties  well;  weekly,  moun- 
tains 01  the  fiat  money  were  publicly  burned.  Its  work,  however,  was  cut  short  by 
General  Reyes,  who  ordered  the  funds  destined  for  amortization  to  be  paid  into  the 
public  treasury  for  the  general  expense  fund  of  the  nation;  to  replace  the  Jimta,  he 
conceived  and  carried  out  the  idea  of  reestablishing  a  national  bank.  It  was  called 
the  Banco  Central  and  received  extraordinary  privileges,  with  the  object  not  only  of 
handling  the  money  problem  but  of  aiding  in  the  solution  of  the  fiscal  questions  of  the 


58        COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

fiovernment.  Organized  by  a  syndicate  of  Colombian  capitalists  *  *  *  and  of 
powerful  financial  interests,  its  shares  were  offered  for  sale  throughotit  the  country, 
but  were  not  ovorfavorablv  received.  Of  the  authorized  and  intended  capital  of 
$8,000,000  gold  (shares,  80,000  at  $100  each)  only  some  31,925  shares  were  eventually 
taken,  $50  a  share  being  paid  cash  down,  the  remaining  $50  to  be  subject  to  call  of  the 
board  of  directors  (but  it  has  never  been  called). 

Among  the  duties,  or  rights,  of  the  bank  *  *  *  were:  To  collect  certain  of 
the  Government  revenues,  receiving  a  commission  of  10  per  cent  of  the  net  proceeds 
for  so  doing,  the  expense  of  collection  being  for  the  account  of  the  Government;  to 
exchange  the  ctirrent  paper  money  for  a  new  and  well-engraved  edition  ordered  from 
England;  to  be  the  Government  depositor}^;  to  loan  the  Government  (from  its  own 
revenues  in  process  of  collection,  it  will  be  noted)  moneys  necessary  to  pay  the  interest 
on  the  foreign  debt  and  to  arrange  such  payment;  to  issue  bank  notes,  to  the  exclusion 
of  all  other  institutions,  to  twice  the  amount  of  the  paid-up  capital,  keeping  a  cash 
reserve  in  gold  or  in  Government  paper  equivalent  to  only  30  per  cent  of  the  amounts 
issued;  [to  have  the  privilege  of]  telegraph  and  postal  franks  and  minor  exemptions 
from  customs  duties  and  recording  fees;  to  do  all  in  its  power  to  maintain  the  rate  of 
exchange  at  10,000;  to  amortize  the  Government  paper  money  with  25  per  cent  (to  be 
increased  later  to  50  per  cent)  of  certain  revenues  collected;  and  to  open  a  blank  credit 
to  the  Government  of  $1,000,000,  to  be  increased  later  to  $2,000,000. 

This  bank  certainly  rendered  many  useful  services  to  the  Government,  not  the 
least  of  which  were  in  paying  the  interest  on  the  foreign  debt,  in  powerfully  contrib- 
uting to  the  stability  of  exchange,  and  in  reducing  the  rate  of  interest — which,  at  the 
time  of  its  foundation,  was  currently  2  per  cent  and  had  reached  as  high  as  7  per  cent 
per  month' — to  1  per  cent  a  month  and  even  less  for  prime  bills  and  discounts.  But 
the  extraordinary  privileges  it  possessed  *  *  *  aroused  opposition.  After  the 
retirement  of  Reyes,  consequently,  the  Government  contract  with  the  bank  was  re- 
scinded; any  damages  to  which  it  may  have  been  entitled  for  such  reason  were  to  be 
set  off  by  the  interest  which  the  new  Government  claimed  to  be  due  the  treasury. 
The  Banco  Central  was  continued  thereafter  merely  as  a  private  bank  on  the  same 
footing  as  other  banks. 

SUBSEQUENT   LAWS. 

Laws  subsequent  to  that  creating  the  Banco  Central,  by  fixing  the  rate  of  exchange 
of  paper  money  for  gold  at  10,000  for  the  payment  of  duties  and  taxes  and  n\any  other 
purposes,  have  helped  to  maintain  the  stability  of  that  ratio;  and  by  legislation  also, 
the  outworn,  dirty  old  bills  have  been  replaced  by  a  newer  issue  (the  last  edition  was 
engraved  in  the  United  States)  and  a  small  amount  of  nickel  and  silver  currency  has 
been  coined  and  put  into  circulation.  The  most  recent  important  law  dealing  with 
the  currency  has  been  No.  69  of  1909,  which  created  a  Conversion  Board — Junta  de 
Conversi6n — modeled  after  the  former  Junta  de  Amortizacidn,  charged  with  the  duty  of 
exchangingold  bills  for  new  and  for  silver  (.900  fine)  and  nickel,  and  of  taking  such  steps 
as  may  be  deemed  proper  to  avoid  fluctuations  in  exchange.  In  1912  the  old  Govern- 
ment Mint  at  Medellin  was  reopened  also  for  the  coinage  of  gold ;  but  gold  coin  could 
be  exported  as  easily  as  gold  dust  or  bars,  and,  under  this  condition,  will  be  whenever 
foreign  exchange  makes  it  profitable  to  do  so. 

The  insufficiency  of  the  total  amount  of  money  in  circulation  for  the  needs  of  the 
country's  business  has,  however,  been  disturbing.  On  the  other  hand,  the  provisions 
of  the  last-named  law,  by  which  certain  Government  revenues  (namely,  the  product 
of  the  emerald  mines  of  Muzo  and  Cosquez  and  of  certain  other  mines,  the  2  per  cent 
surcharge  on  customs,  the  premium  on  coinage  of  gold  and  silver,  and,  looking  to  the 
future,  returns  from  the  cession  of  the  right  to  issue  bank  notes  and  any  possible  sur- 
plus) are  set  aside  to  form  a  metallic  reserve  to  guarantee  the  conversion  of  the  paper 
monev,  coupled  especially  with  the  improving  condition  of  the  national  finances,  have 
been  the  greatest  factors  in  maintaining  the  stability  of  exchange  at  near  the  legal  rate 
[of  10,000]. 

PRESENT  CONDITION  OF  CUHRENCY  AND  GOVERNMENT  FINANCE. 

Since  the  above  account  was  written  in  1911-12,  a  great  improve- 
ment lias  been  effected  in  the  national  finances.  The  Junta  de 
Conversi6n,  having  been  again  reorganized  bv  the  Government,  was 
authorized  to  exchange  new  ^old  notes  for  the  remaining  old  paper 
currency,  the  time  allowed  bemg  from  November  1  to  December  19, 
1917.     This  measure  effectively  retired  all  the  old  paper  money  worth 


GOVEBNMENT,   EDUCATI03<r,  AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  59 

100  to  1  at  the  fixed  rate  of  exchange,  and  of  this  new  money  (paper) 
there  is  now  10,180,000  dollars  in  circulation  (1919), quoted  at  par  with 
the  pound  sterling  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  during  the  financial  difTi- 
culties  of  the  Government  in  the  war  period  (due  to  the  falling  off  of 
imports  and  the  consequent  decline  in  customs  receipts,  which  con- 
stitute 75  or  80  per  cent  of  the  national  revenue) ,  the  Government  was 
forced  to  use  for  other  purposes  the  metallic  surplus  that  had  been 
accumulated  by  the  Junta  de  Conversion  as  backing  for  the  issue  of 
the  new  paper  money. 

In  1918  and  during  the  first  half  of  1919  New  York  exchange  was 
at  a  heavy  discount,  at  times  as  high  as  15  and  16  per  cent,  the  de- 
mand being  for  the  new  Colombian  paper  currency  on  account  of  the 
lack  of  circulating  medium,  of  which  there  was  not  enough  to  meet 
the  ordinary  business  needs  of  the  country.  However,  later  in  1919, 
the  heavy  unportations  of  American  gold  coin,  estimated  at  about 
$9,000,000,  and  the  extraordinary  demand  for  merchandise  and 
materials  from  the  United  States,  induced  by  the  high  coffee  prices 
and  purchased  at  very  high  figures,  wiped  out  the  unfavorable  balance 
of  trade  against  the  United  States,  and  New  York  exchange  was 
quoted  during  the  latter  part  of  the  year  at  nearly  par,  the  average 
rates  being  between  98^  and  99. 

At  first  great  difficulty  was  encountered  in  putting  American  gold 
coin  into  circulation  on  account  of  the  high  cost  and  danger  of  its 
transportation  in  the  country  and  the  habitual  preference  of  the 
people  for  paper  money,  except  possibly  in  Antioquia,  where  they 
were  used  to  handling  gold.  This  necessitated  the  coinage  of  Ameri- 
can gold  coins  into  Colombian  gold  coins  of  the  same  weight  and 
fineness  as  the  English  gold  coins,  but  again  difficulty  was  encountered 
on  account  of  the  small  capacity  of  the  mint,  which  had  been  swamped 
with  the  coinage  of  gold  that  was  produced  in  the  country  and  was  no 
longer  exported  on  account  of  the  prevailing  condition  of  foreign 
exchange.  The  possessor  of  gold  in  Colombia  could  convert  it  into 
New  York  or  London  exchange  at  a  profit  of  15  to  20  per  cent, 
and  the  gold  stayed  in  the  country.  The  mint  at  MedeUm  could 
not  turn  out  the  gold  coin  fast  enough  to  meet  the  demand  for  it. 
Finally,  in  July,  1919,  the  Government  declared  that  American  gold 
coin  was  to  be  accepted  at  par  with  English  and  Columbian  gold  coin 
at  the  customhouses  and  for  all  taxes  payable  in  gold.  [Note. — 
Persons  receiving  American  gold  gain  approximately  $0.14  on  every 
$5  on  account  of  the  difference  in  weight  between  the  American  and 
the  English  gold  coin.]  The  result  was  that  American  gold  coin  was 
put  into  free  circulation  throughout  the  country. 

In  May,  1919,  a  presidential  decree  declared  an  export  tax  of  5  per 
cent  on  all  platinum  exported  from  Colombia  after  June  15,  1919.  The 
same  decree  prohibited  the  exportation  of  gold  of  whatever  quality 
without  the  prior  consent  of  the  Government,  as  long  as  the  existing 
restrictions  on  the  exportation  of  gold  should  be  in  force  in  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States.  This  decree  provided  also  for  permission  to 
export  gold  from  Colombia  after  satisfactory  proofs  had  been  sub- 
mitted that  like  amounts  had  been  imported  from  Europe  or  the 
United  States.  There  was  no  change  in  the  export  tax  on  gold  from 
Colombia. 

To  meet  the  demand  for  more  circulating  medium  in  the  country, 
another  presidential  decree  in  January,  1919,  declared  English  paper 


60        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

money  receivable  by  the  customhouses  at  par  with  Colombian  money, 
and  every  effort  was  made  to  put  English  paper  money  into  national 
circulation,  but  without  result.  Some  English  money  was  imported, 
having  been  secured  at  a  discount  by  reason  of  the  low  rate  of  Lon- 
don exchange,  and  this  was  used  by  merchants  to  pay  import  duties 
at  the  customhouses.  The  customhouses  protested  to  tne  Govern- 
ment because  they  could  not  use  this  money  again  except  at  a  heavy 
discount  of  20  to  30  per  cent  in  the  local  markets,  and  the  decree 
was  finally  rescinded. 

A  report  submitted  at  the  beginning  of  1921  by  the  American 
Legation  at  Bogota  has  the  following  to  say  concerning  the  exporta- 
tion of  gold,  its  influence  upon  Colombian  exchange  (which  had 
undergone  a  sharp  reversal  smce  1919),  and  the  amoimt  of  gold  in 
circulation  in  Colombia: 

The  Colombian  Congress  on  November  20,  1920,  passed  a  law  permitting  the  free 
exportation  of  gold  in  all  its  forms  except  money,  upon  proof  that  such  gold  is  not 
the  result  of  the  melting  down  of  gold  coins.  It  is  apparently  the  general  belief  here 
that  this  permission,  together  with  the  decrease  in  imports  incident  to  the  high  rate 
of  exchange,  will,  for  a  time  at  least,  effect  a  gradual  lowering  of  this  rate.  There 
is  scarcely  room  for  doubt  that  this  exportation  has  tended  to  lower  the  rate,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  up  to  the  present  time  the  latter  has  been  the  subject,  on  the  whole, 
of  a  continued  upward  movement.  This  has  been  occasioned  by  the  fact  that  the 
amount  of  foreign  drafts  coming  due  from  month  to  month  has  been  more  than  suffi- 
cient to  offset  the  effect  of  the  gold  exported.  For  example,  it  is  stated  that  foreign 
drafts  to  the  amount  of  $5,052,435  were  drawna,  through  Bogota  banks  alone,  for  the 
single  month  of  September,  1920. 

The  very  active  exportation  of  gold  that  has  been  carried  on  for  some  months  past 
by  speculators  on  the  coast  has  been  closely  correlated  with  the  fact  that  the  rate  of 
exchange  has  averaged  considerably  lower  on  the  coast  than  in  the  interior.  This, 
of  course,  has  had  the  effect  of  drawing  gold  from  the  interior  for  the  purchase  of 
drafts  on  the  United  States. 

The  amount  of  gold  in  circulation  in  Colombia  June  1, 1920,  according  to  the  official 
report  of  the  Colombian  Ministry  of  the  Treasury,  was  23,291,642  Colombian  dollars, 
and  the  figures  given  by  the  board  of  conversion  for  the  same  date  are  23,948,492 
dollars.  This  is  the  latest  official  information  available.  Since  the  date  given  it 
has  become  increasingly  difficult,  because  of  the  hoarding  of  gold  brought  about  by 
the  unsettled  economic  condition  of  the  country,  to  determine  the  amount  of  gold 
in  circulation.  Nevertheless,  in  connection  with  an  investigation  made  by  the 
legation,  the  national  inspector  of  monetary  circulation  stated  that  while  it  was 
virtually  impossible  to  give  anything  like  exact  figures  in  this  regard,  he  would 
place  the  amount  of  gold  coin,  at  the  end  of  November,  1920,  in  the  country  at  between 
7,000,000  and  9,000,000  dollars.  A  circular  information  sheet  has  been  issued  by 
the  official  mentioned,  showing  the  stocks  of  the  various  circulation  media  in  the 
Bogota  banks  on  various  dates  during  1920.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  no  deduc- 
tions may  be  validly  drawn  therefrom  as  to  the  actual  gold  circulation  of  the  coun- 
try, since  it  has  naturally  been  to  the  interest  of  the  banks  to  lower  as  little  as  possible 
their  gold  reserves. 

FINANCIAL  DIFFICULTIES  OF  THE  GOVERNMENT— INTERNAL  LOANS. 

Law  No.  43  of  1916  authorized  the  issue  of  internal-loan  bonds  in 
three  denominations — A,  10  dollars;  B,  50  dollars;  C,  100  dollars — 
interest  at  8  per  cent  per  annum,  payable  quarterly,  and  principal 
and  interest  to  be  received  in  payment  of  all  national  taxes.  The 
primary  purpose  of  this  loan  was  to  stimulate  agriculture  throughout 
the  country,  but  the  proposed  law  failed  in  its  application  on  account 
of  the  scarcity  of  ready  monej  in  the-country.  Surplus  capital  was 
not  attracted  by  the  rate  of  interest  offered,  since  the  returns  from 

Srivate  enterprise  were  very  much  higher.     In  December,  1918,  Law 
[o.  58  changed  this  law,  increasing  tne  interest  rate  to  10  per  cent, 


GOVERISTMENT,  EDUCATION,  AND   NATIONAL.  FINANCE.  61 

payable  monthly  instead  of  quarterly — the  proceeds  to  be  used  to 
meet  the  immediate  urgent  expenses  of  the  Grovemment  and  to 
promote  railway  building. 

The  same  condition  oi  scarcity  of  surplus  capital  in  the  country 
confronted  the  new  internal  loan,  which  was  not  well  received  by 
the  business  men  of  the  country,  who  argued  that  foreign  capital 
should  be  allowed  and  attracted  to  build  the  railways  and  carry 
out  public-utility  improvements,  leaving  the  small  surplus  capital  of 
the  country  for  mdustrial  development. 

Up  to  the  end  of  the  fiscal  year  1919,  a  total  of  2,500,000  Colombian 
dollars  had  been  issued  in  these  internal-debt  bonds,  called  "Cedulas 
de  Tesoreria,"  having  been  allotted  to  the  Departments  for  railway 
and  road  building  and,  in  many  cases,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  the 
business  people  to  invest  in  them  freely,  having  been  disposed  of  by 
popular  subscription  for  some  badly  needed  road  or  railway  work, 
such  as  the  500,000  dollars  allotted  to  Santander  for  the  Puerto 
Wilches-Bucararaanga  Railway.  When  disposed  of  at  all  on  the 
,J>pen  market,  these  bonds  sold  at  a  discount  of  30  per  cent. 

BANK  LOANS. 

Opposition  to  the  Government  was  aroused  late  in  1918  by  legis- 
lation unfavorable  to  the  flour-milling  and  salt  industries  of  the 
Caribbean  coast,  and  this  resulted  in  the  formation  of  the  ''Liga 
Costena,"  an  organization  of  the  coast  interests  for  the  protection  of 
their  local  industries.  The  outcome  was  a  trip  to  the  coast  by  the 
President  in  January,  1919,  during  which  all  of  the  principal  cities 
were  visited,  includmg  Medellin  en  route,  and  a  total  of  1,600,000 
Colombian  dollars  was  borrowed  from  the  various  native  banks  and 
wealthy  merchants  to  meet  the  pressing  needs  of  the  Government, 
which  was  beginning  to  feel  the  lack  of  the  usual  revenue  received 
from  customs  duties  paid  on  imports  into  the  country,  which  fell  off 
during  the  war. 

In  the  meantime  the  Government  was  doing  all  in  its  power  to 
economize,  the  President's  message  of  November  5,  1917,  cutting  the 
annual  appropriations  by  1,000,000  dollars,  as  follows  (Colombian 
dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  currency): 

Colombian  dollars. 

Reduction  of  charities 65,  000 

Jails  expense  to  be  paid  by  the  Departments 600,  000 

Reduction  of  the  army  by  1,000  men 200,  000 

Reduction  in  the  schools  department 55,  000 

Reduction  in  number  of  Federal  employees 80,  000 

Total 1,000,000 

FINANCIAL  CONFERENCE. 

On  June  17,  1918,  a  national  financial  conference,  coniposed  of 
the  members  of  the  chambers  of  commerce  of  Bogota,  Manizales, 
Barranquilla,  Cucuta,  Tunja,  Pas  to,  Medellin,  Cartagena,  and  Buca- 
ramanga,  was  held  in  Bogota  with  the  object  of  studying  the  finan- 
cial needs  of  the  country  and  discovering  some  method  whereby  the 
circulating  medium  could  be  increased  in  sufficient  amount  to  meet 
the  commercial  necessities  of  the  country  at  large,  and  also  to  aid 
the  Government  in  meeting  the  fiscal  crisis.  Out  of  this  meeting 
grew  the  plan  to  make  American  bills  legal  tender,  a  measure  wanted 


62        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

by  the  coast  communities  but  bitterly  opposed  in  Government  circles 
in  Bogota  and  by  the  business  people  of  MedcUin.  The  Minister  of 
the  Treasury  was  a  strong  supporter  of  this  plan  and  finally  resigned 
in  January,  1919,  on  account  of  the  failure  of  Congress  to  pass  the 
proposed  law  that  would  have  made  this  plan  effective.  It  will  be 
recalled  that  the  Government  could  not  issue  more  paper  money 
because  of  the  fact  that  the  reserve  funds  of  the  Junta  ae  Conversion 
had  been  used  to  meet  current  expenses,  and  there  remained  no 
reserve  on  which  to  base  such  an  increased  issue,  which,  it  was  feared, 
would  cause  the  Government  paper  currency  to  become  depreciated, 
as  was  the  case  with  the  fiat  money  of  past  times — a  condition  which 
it  was  sought  to  avoid  at  all  costs. 

FAIUJRE  OF  FOREIGN  LOANS  DURING  THE  WAR. 

Out  of  the  mass  of  new  laws  and  legislation  having  to  do  with 
foreign  loans  during  the  period  of  the  war,  there  are  two  principal 
laws  that  authorized  the  Executive  to  contract  for  large  foreign 
loans  with  which  to  meet  the  more  pressing  needs  of  the  Govern-^? 
ment  and  to  carry  out  harbor  works,  sanitation,  and  railway  build- 
ing. 

The  first  of  these  laws  was  No.  55  of  1916,  which  had  to  do  with 
the  Pacific  Railway  (see  p.  272)  and  authorized  the  Government  (the 
Executive)  to  make  a  new  contract  with  the  Pacific  Railway  Co. 
(superseding  all  old  contracts  and  that  of  1905),  whereby  the  com- 
pany agreed  to  receive  a  reduction  of  8,000  Colombian  gold  dollars 
per  kilometer  for  new  line  constructed  and  to  cede  to  the  Government 
the  right  to  certain  lands  acquired  under  the  old  contracts,  some  of 
which»  contained  valuable  and  extensive  deposits  of  coal ;  and  the 
Government  was  to  cooperate  with  the  company  to  secure  a  loan  of 
10,000,000  dollars  for  which  the  company  would  be  responsible,  the 
Government  paying  the  regular  funds  allotted  to  the  Pacific  Rail- 
way work.  One  million  dollars  of  this  sum  was  to  be  used  by  the 
company  for  the  improvement  and  sanitation  of  the  port  of  Buena- 
ventura and  700,000  dollars  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  line  be- 
tween that  port  and  Cisneros  (the  old  part  of  the  railway,  some  of 
which  is  30  years  old  and  in  very  bad  condition,  having  to  be  relo- 
cated on  account  of  the  danger  to  the  line  down  the  Dagua  River). 
The  company  finally  refused  to  accept  the  conditions  of  this  new  law, 
though  an  effort  was  made  to  secure  the  loan  in  both  the  United 
States  and  England  during  the  first  half  of  1919,  and  the  ultimate 
result  was  the  taking  over  of  the  Pacific  Railway  by  the  Government 
in  September,   1919. 

In  law  No.  77  of  1917  Congress  authorized  the  Executive  to  con- 
tract for  a  foreign  loan  of  15,000,000  Colombian  dollars  to  be  used 
for  the  sanitation  of  seaports  and  other  public  works.  The  product 
of  the  national  salt  mines  and  other  revenue  guaranteed  the  pay- 
ment of  principal  and  interest.  The  privilege  of  liquidation  at  any 
time  was  reserved  by  the  Government.  Nothing  came  of  this  on 
account  of  the  general  condition  brought  about  by  the  war. 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,  AND   NATIONAL  FINANCE.  63 

OUTLINE  OF  FISCAL  CONDITION. 

In  order  to  show  the  high  increases  in  governmental  expenses, 
out  of  which  have  grown  the  various  fiscal  crises  of  the  last  few  years, 
a  comparison  is  given  below  between  the  year  1911  and  recent  budg- 
ets. 

The  calculated  income  of  the  national  Government  for  1911 
from  all  sources  was  9,779,500  Colombian  dollars,  with  the  author- 
ized expenditures  amounting  to  11,768,450  dollars.  As  provided  by 
law,  the  Executive  scaled  down  these  authorized  expenditures  to 
avoid  a  deficit,  and,  in  fact,  cut  them  down,  in  accordance  with  the 
new  policy  of  strict  economy,  to  8,937,688  dollars — a  relatively  small 
sum  for  a  nation  of  5,000,000  inhabitants.  The  total  revenue  in 
1911  exceeded  the  estimated  amoimt,  being  12,685,200  dollars,  with 
items  as  follows: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Customs  duties,  port  fees,  etc 9, 072, 099 

Consular  fees 451,  273 

Posts  and  telegraphs 455, 831 

Succession  duties 85,  285 

Sabana  Railway '263,  203 

National  properties 10, 323 

Patent  and  trade-mark  fees 486 

Marine  salt  mines 598, 716 

Terrestrial  salt  mines  and  springs 797,  958 

Mining  taxes  and  leases 49, 158 

Stamp  taxes  and  law  paper 476,  680 

'-        Stamp'  taxes,  cigarettes  and  matches 56, 060 

Territorial  revenues,  Choco  and  Meta 59, 022 

River  navigation  tax 116, 918 

Miscellaneous  revenue 192, 188 

Total 12,  685,  200 

The  total  revenues  during  the  Restrepo  administration,  1910-1914, 
were  as  follows : 

Colombian 
dollars. 

August  to  December,  1910 4,  940,  276 

During  1911 12, 480, 581 

During  1912 13,  995, 492 

During  1913 17, 347, 101 

January  to  July,  1914 8, 831, 966 

Total 57,595,416 

The  total  revenues  during  the  Concha  administration,  1914-1918, 
were  as  follows : 

Colombian 
doUars. 

August  to  December,  1914 4, 814,  626 

During  1915 12,  638, 449 

During  1916 221^  945^  224 

During  1917 13, 366,  623 

Mar.  1  to  July  31,  1918 4, 197, 846 

Total 56, 062,  768 

The  first-named  administration  secured  a  foreign  loan  of  £300,000 
and  the  second  took  the  1,500,000  dollars  metallic  reserve  fund  of 
the  Conversion  Board  for  Government  uses,  by  authority  of  Congress. 

»  Spent  234,630  dollars  for  improvements. 
'January,  1916,  to  Feb.  28, 1917. 


64        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Both  administrations  faced  a  deficit  on  entering  office  and  left  a 
deficit  upon  leaving,  notwithstanding  measures  for  greater  economy. 
A  comparison  may  be  made  from  the  following  figures  for  1910  and 
1918,  showing  the  increased  expenses  of  the  minor  departments  of 
the  Government: 


Departments. 


Council  of  State 

Tribunals  of  Contention. 

Medicine  (legal) 

Hygiene 

Fiscal  Department 

Tribunals  of  Justice 

Superior  Courts 


1910 


Colombian 
dollars. 


10, 157 
31,84.5 
136,950 
40,282 


1918 


Colombian 
dollars. 
42,839 
65,990 
58,147 
133, 191 
57, 931 
216, 620 
64,653 


Departments. 


Circuit  Courts 

Posts 

Telegraphs. .. 
Police  Service 
Prisons 

Total... 


1910 


Colombian 
dollars. 
310,266 
303,185 
543,178 
484,196 
109,500 


1918 


Colomldan 

dollars. 

495,735 

842,737 

1,186,374 

1,017,475 

824,120 


1,969,559  I  5,005,812 


The  above  table  shows  how  expenses  have  mounted  faster  than 
revenues. 

In  his  message  to  Congress  on  November  7,  1918,  President  Suarez 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that,  upon  his  taking  office  on  the  7th  of 
August,  there  was  a  deficit  of  3,824,497  dollars,  that  the  national 
deficit  bjr  February  28,  1919,  was  estimated  at  5,548,285  dollars, 
and  that,  if  the  budget  as  adopted  by  the  Congress  for  1919  were  main- 
tained, another  deficit  of  4,747,786  dollars  would  have  to  be  faced  on 
February  28,  1920— or  a  total  deficit  of  more  than  10,000,000  dol/ars 
gold.  Law  No.  23  of  that  year  was  also  criticized  on  the  ground  that 
the  8,000,000  dollars'  worth  of  internal-loan  bonds,  authorized  to 
draw  only  8  per  cent  interest  annually,  would  not  be  acceptable  to 
the  country  at  large  and  that  the  rate  of  interest  should  be  materially 
increased. 

The  following  table  shows  the  proposed  and  the  "reformed" 
budget  of  expenses  for  1920: 


Departments. 


Interior  (Gobiemo) 
Foreign  relations. . 

Finance 

War 

Public  instruction. 


Proposed. 


Colombian 
dollars. 

6,392,301 
351,321 
995, 298 

1,785,549 
835,017 


"Re- 
formed.' 


Colombian 
dollars. 

5,937,842 
372,609 
796,116 

2, 045, 406 

1,056,061 


Departments. 


Agriculture  and  commerce 

Public  works 

Treasury 

Total 


Proposed. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

207,248 

1,133,719 

3,606,897 


15,307,350 


"Re- 
formed." 


Colombian 
dollars. 

116,744 
1,296,367 
3,965,088 


15,586,233 


The  "  reformed  "  estimate,  finally  adopted,  was  supposed  to  be  more 
economical  but  really  resulted  in  an  addition  of  278,883  dollars. 
Salaries  of  all  cabinet  officers  were  reduced  by  20  per  cent,  but  the 
consular  service  received  85,000  dollars,  instead  of  the  fonner  70,000 
dollars,  and  the  diplomatic  service  was  given  120,000  dollars.  The 
estimate  for  1920  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce 
was  cut  by  43.7  per  cent,  leaving  this  important  department  of  the 
Government  with  its  hands  tied  and  with  no  hope  of  being  able  to  do 
any  constructive  work  for  the  country.  This  was  the  cause  of  the 
discontinuance  of  the  new  Government  Agricultural  Experiment 
Station  on  the  Dorada  Railway  in  Tolima,  from  which  great  things 


GOVERXMENT,  EDUCATION,  AND   NATIONAL.  FINANCE. 


65 


were  expected  in  the  future  for  the  betterment  of  Colombian  agri- 
culture. 

In  1918  and  1919  the  several  departments  received  the  following 
percentages  of  the  national  funds: 


Departments. 


Interior 

Foreign  relations. 

Finance 

War 

PubUc  instruction 


1918 

1919       ! 

Per  cent. 

Percent. 

35.9 

38.0 

1.8 

2.4 

8.1 

5.1 

13.7 

13.2 

7.0 

7.0 

Departments. 


Percejit. 
Agriculture  and  commerce. . . '  1. 2 

Public  works 10.3 

Treasury 22.0 


Total. 


100.0 


EXTERNAL  DEBT.i 

In  1889  the  Republic  of  Colombia,  which  had  changed  its  name 
from  the  United  States  of  Colombia,  arranged  a  plan  to  provide  for 
the  consolidation  of  the  debt  assumed  by  the  Republic.  The  new 
bonds  for  which  this  plan  provided  were  to  be  known  as  the  ''Con- 
solidated External  Bonds  of  1890,"  to  be  issued  to  the  amount  of 
£2,420,000,  and  to  bear  interest  at  the  rate  of  3  per  cent  until  Decem- 
ber 31,  1899,  and  at  4  per  cent  per  annum  thereafter.  The  principal 
of  the  old  bonds  was  to  have  been  converted  into  the  new  bonds  at 
par  and  interest  in  arrears  at  50  per  cent  of  the  nominal  value. 
Twenty  per  cent  of  the  gross  customs  receipts  of  the  country  were  to 
have  been  assigned  for  the  payment  of  the  interest  on  the  new  bonds, 
and  the  sum  of  £12,000  per  annum  was  assigned  as  a  sinking  fund, 
the  Government  having  the  right  to  redeem  the  bonds  by  drawing 
at  70  per  cent  of  par  until  December  31,  1894,  and  at  80  per  cent 
thereafter. 

This  plan,  which  had  been  a^eed  upon  by  the  representatives  of 
the  Government  and  the  Committee  of  Foreign  Bondholders,  of  Lon- 
don, representing  the  bondholders,  did  not  meet  with  the  approval 
of  the  Colombian  Congress,  and  in  1896  the  above  agreement  was 
modified,  the  interest  rate  being  placed  at  1^  per  cent  for  the  first 
three  years,  2  per  cent  for  the  second  three  years,  2^  per  cent  for  the 
third  three  years,  and  3  per  cent  per  annum  thereafter.  The  sinking 
fund  'was  placed  at  one-half  per  cent,  cumulative,  for  the  first  three 
years,  1  per  cent  for  the  second  three  years,  and  1 1  per  cent  there- 
after, cumulative. 

In  1900  the  interest  on  the  loan  was  not  met;  payments  were 
resumed  July  1,  1905,  and  the  sinking  fund,  which  had  likewise  been 
suspended,  was  resumed  January,  1910.  The  unpaid  coupons  were 
exchanged  for  noninterest-bearing  certificates,  70  per  cent  of  which 
were  paid  off  in  1907  and  1908,  the  remaining  30  per  cent  being  sub- 
ject to  settlement  of  certain  alleged  claims  of  Colombia  against  another 
Government. 

In  1906  the  Government  issued  £300,000  5  per  cent  bonds,  secured 
on  the  property  of  the  Bogota-Sabana  Railway,  the  proceeds  of  the 
loan  to  be  used  to  convert  the  old  paper  currency  of  the  country. 
The  sinking  fund  of  this  issue  was  nxed  at  1  per  cent  per  annum, 

'  As  far  as  the  paragraph  on  p.  66,  beginning  "  The  report  of  the  legislati^-e  committee  on  national  credits," 
this  section  is  reproduced  from  "Investments in  Latin  America  and  the  British  West  Indies,"  by  Frederic 
M.  Halsey,  pubhshed  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  as  Special  Agents  Series  No.  169. 

37558°— 21 5 


66 


COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


cumulative.  Approximately  £275,000  of  these  bonds  remained  out- 
standing in  1916. 

In  1911,  7,560,000  francs  (£300,000)  6  per  cent  bonds  were  issued 
in  France,  being  ofTcred  for  public  subscription  at  about  98  per  cent. 
These  bonds  were  declared  redeemable  in  30  years  through  the  opera- 
tion of  a  cumulative  sinking  fund,  and  the  entire  service  on  the  loan 
is  guaranteed  by  the  assignment  of  3  per  cent  of  the  entire  customs 
revenue.     This  issue  is  known  as  the  6  per  cent  gold  loan  of  1911. 

During  the  year  1913  £1,500,000  bonds  were  authorized,  practically 
all  of  which  were  issued  in  exchange  for  the  6  per  cent  bonds  of  the 
Colombian' National  (Girardot)  Railway,  on  the  following  terms: 


Class  of  former  bonds  (Colombian  National  Ry.). 


Former 
amount  of 

railway 
bonds  out- 
standing. 


Percentage 

of  new 

bonds 

offered  for 

old  bonds. 


New  bonds. 


6  per  cent  first-mortgage  debentures 

6  per  cent  second-mortgage  debentures,  including  £84,000  overdue 

interest 

6  per  cent  customs-guaranteed  bonds 

6  per  co^t  customs-guaranteed  debentures 

Total , 


£200,000 

400,000 
430,000 
450,000 


107 

85 
95 
95 


£214,000 

340,000 
408,500 
427,500 


1,480,000 


1,390,000 


Approximately  £1,224,360  of  the  Government  bonds  were  issued 
in  exchange  for  the  railway  bonds,  and  of  those  issued  approximately 
£987,000  remained  outstanding  at  the  close  of  1917.  The  bonds  were 
quoted  at  70  in  January,  1918,  this  comparing  with  the  high  price  since 
1911  of  88i,  and  the  low  price  of  55.  These  Government  Donds  are  to 
be  redeemed  by  purchase  in  the  market,  or  by  drawing  at  par,  on  or 
before  March  1,  1947.  The  yearly  service  is  secured  by  the  hypothe- 
cation of  7  per  cent  of  the  annual  customhouse  receipts  of  the  Re- 
public, any  deficiency  to  be  made  up  out  of  general  revenues. 

Referring  again  to  the  consolidated  external  debt,  the  present 
interest  rate  on  which  is  3  per  cent  per  annum,  it  may  be  stated  that 
interest  has  been  regularly  maintained  since  1906,  even  during  the 
extremely  difficult  war  period.  The  sinking-fund  payments  were 
suspended  during  a  portion  of  1915  and  of  1916.  The  amount  of 
bonds  outstanding  just  prior  to  the  close  of  1917  was  £2,078,400, 
which  total  has  since  been  reduced  slightly.  The  £590,000  bonds 
purchased  for  redemption  by  the  Government  cost  £291,195,  an  aver- 
age of  49.35  per  bond.  The  price  of  bonds  under  the  issue  in  January, 
1918,  was  49i,  as  compared  with  50i  at  the  closing  of  the  London 
Stock  Exchange,  July  27,  1914. 

The  Government  of  Colombia  has  guaranteed  interest  on  a  small 
amount  of  bonds  of  railway  companies  operating  in  the  Republic. 

The  report  of  the  legislative  committee  on  national  credits,  made 
to  the  Colombian  Congress  October  3,  1919,  shows  that  the  consoli- 
dated debt  at  3  per  cent  per  annum  had  been  reduced  to  £1,868,200, 
from  £2,700,000  in  1905,  marking  a  reduction  of  one-third.  The 
report  also  shows  that  the  bonds  of  this  debt  were  Quoted  as  low  as 
14  per  cent  when  service  was  suspended,  but  that  tne  present  rates 
are  69  and  70  per  cent,  which  signifies  a  valorization  of  approxi- 
mately 50  per  cent.  The  rise  in  the  market  value  of  the  consolidated 
bonds  in  London  is  attributed  to  the  good  effect  of  the  Government's 


GOVERISTMENT,   EDUCATION,   AND   NATIONAL,  FINANCE.  67 

manifest  ability  and  willingness  to  meet  all  foreign  obligations,  even 
during  the  financial  stress  of  the  war  years.  The  committee  recom- 
mends that  every  effort  be  made  to  increase  and  maintain  service  on 
the  foreign  debt,  seeing  in  the  return  of  confidence  the  key  to  future 
loans  and  prosperity  for  the  country  at  large. 

The  same  committee  reports  that  the  total  internal  debt  of  Colom- 
bia is  £4,079,870,  or  20,399,350  Colombian  gold  dollars  (1  Colombian 
dollar  equals  $0.9733  United  States  currency).  In  this  amount  is 
included  the  guaranty  by  the  Government  of  the  Girardot  Railway 
bonds  and  debentures,  secured  by  this  public  utility  of  great  value 
and  hopeful  future.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the  entire  public  debt 
only  reaches  the  small  total  of  $3.30  per  capita,  being  the  lowest  for 
any  nation,  and  that  the  external  debt  amounts  to  only  the  product 
of  the  national  revenues  for  one  year  or  about  1  per  cent  of  the 
national  wealth. 

This  report  states  that,  of  the  4,000,000  doUars  issued  in  the  new 
"  Cedulas  de  Tesoreria"  (internal-loan  bonds,  see  p.  69)  140,907  dollars 
had  been  amortized,  in  strict  accordance  with  the  promise  of  the 
Government.  The  product  of  the  stamp  act  has  been  assigned  to 
the  amortization  of  these  internal-loan  bonds. 

Lazard  Bros.  &  Co.  are  the  fiscal  agents  of  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment in  London,  under  contract  extended  for  five  additional  years 
from  the  end  of  1916.  The  monthly  and  quarterly  balances  of  the 
Colombian  Government  with  this  firm  are  published  in  the  Diario 
Oficial  regularly;  Nos.  16,057,  16,227,  16,390,  and  16,507  contain  the 
list  of  payments  made  on  the  foreign  debt  for  the  last  months  of  1916, 
the  two  semesters  of  1917,  and  the  first  semester  of  1918.  During 
the  last  half  of  1918  the  Colombian  Government  paid  in  London  the 
following  sums  on  account: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Consolidated  foreign  debt,  3  per  cent 359, 691 

Loan  of  1913 335,  949 

Sabana  Railway  loan 35,  294 

Northern  Central  Railway  loan 13, 065 

Loan  of  1911 52, 085 

Total 796, 084 

During  the  previous  war  years  Colombia  also  paid  in  London  the 
following  amounts  through  Lazard  &  Co.  to  apply  on  loans : 

Colombian 
Consolidated  foreign  debt,  3  per  cent:  doUars- 

1915 445, 331 

1916 359,  692 

Total 805,023 

Sabana  Railway  loan : 

1915 ' 55,  297 

1916 35,  297 

Total 90, 594 

Loan  of  1913,  Girardot  Railway: 

1915 423,  709 

1916 429, 161 

Total 852, 870 


68        COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Columbian 
Puerto  Wilches  Railway:  dollars. 

1915 26, 634 

1916 26,513 

Total 53, 147 

Loan  of  1911: 

1915 109,  787 

1916 103, 761 

Total 213, 548 

Perier  loan  (emeralds  dejwsited  in  Paris),  1916 34, 375  , 

Grand  total 2, 049,  557 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  the  Government  has  been 
paving  back  indebtedness  at  the  rate  of  over  1,000,000  Colombian 
dollars  per  year,  and  the  amount  paid  during  the  last  half  of  1918  was 
increased  to  about  800,000  dollars,  notwithstanding  the  very  difficult 
internal  fiscal  situation  and  the  mounting  expenses.  If  strict  economy 
could  be  maintained  in  all  Government  expenditures,  Colombia^ 
financial  future  would  be  more  than  satisfactory,  and  the  placing  of 
a  new  loan,  large  enough  to  take  up  all  the  outstanding  and  diversi- 
fied items,  would  greatly  assist  the  country  financially  and  would 
help  to  solve  the  fiscal  problems. 

The  industries  of  the  country  are  steadily  progressing.  Exports 
have  consistently  increased  in  tonnage  and  value  year  by  year,  and 
the  year  1919  saw  the  country  in  a  more  prosperous  condition  than 
ever  before  and  with  the  Government's  revenue  greatly  increased  by 
the  influx  of  imports  which  followed  the  coffee  crop  of  1919,  sold  at 
extraordinarily  nigh  prices  in  New  York.  Exports  of  merchandise 
from  New  York  to  Colombia  increased  900  per  cent  during  the  last 
half  of  1919  as  compared  with  the  similar  period  in  normal  prewar 
years.  .  The  per  capita'  debt  is  the  lowest  for  any  Latin  American 
nation. 

There  is  every  evidence  of  increasing  confidence  and  of  a  new  era 
of  progress  and  prosperitv,  in  which  the  development  of  the  country's 
natural  resources  oi  coal  and  petroleum  will  play  a  leading  part  if 
legislation  can  be  made  compatible  with  the  just  interests  of  foreign 
capital.  And  last,  but  not  least,  the  increased  wealth  of  the  midole 
and  lower  classes,  with  the  added  opportunities  for  educ«tion  and 
advancement,  are  fast  bringing  about  a  new  condition  in  the  country 
and  a  new  thought  imbued  with  modern  conceptions. 

Certain  conditions  militate  against  foreign  loans  in  Colombia. 
The  Government  has  suffered  in  the  past  from  mistakes  and  ill- 
advised  contracts  for  railways  and  loans,  which  have  saddled  it  with 
a  heavy  burden  not  at  all  commensurate  with  the  benefits  received, 
and  the  country  is  still  paying  for  those  mistakes  at  a  time  when  the 
money  is  most  needed  for  new  improvements,  especially  in  transpor- 
tation (railways). 

Also,  there  may  be  quoted  an  extract  from  Phanor  J.  Eder's 
''Colombia": 

Diplomacy  of  a  high  order  is  *  *  *  required  to  carry  through  negotiations  to  a 
successful  termination;  the  Colombian  Government  and  people  *  *  *  are  not 
willing  to  jump  at  the  first  offer  of  a  loan,  on  any  terms  whatever;   some  clauses  in 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION",  AND  NATIONAL.  FINANCE.  69 

contracts  which  the  foreign  banker,  in  view  of  his  home  markets,  insists  upon,  the 
Colombian  is  loath  to  grant.  For  instance,  the  very  reasonable  requirement  that  upon 
default  in  the  payment  of  interest  the  principal  shall  become  due  and  payable  meets 
with    *    *    *    opposition. 

It  is  a  fact  that  certain  recent  (1919)  negotiations  for  large  loans 
in  Colombia  (one  of  them  a  departmental  loan  for  6,000,000  dollars) 
have  fallen  through  because  of  the  failure  of  the  parties  to  agree  upon 
terms.  The  security  offered  was  adequate,  the  financial  condition  of 
the  political  division  was  excellent  in  every  respect,  with  ample  in- 
come to  meet  its  obligations,  and  the  investment  of  the  money  was  to 
be  in  paying  utilities.  The  only  difficulty  was  the  inability  to  agree 
upon  terms. 

A  brighter  aspect  is  shown,  however,  by  two  loans — one  for 
1,000,000  dollars  and  another  for  2,500,000  dollars — made  by  Ameri- 
can interests  to  Departments  in  Colombia  during  the  year  1910,  and 
it  is  expected  that  the  way  will  be  opened  for  a  better  understanding 
in  the  near  future  regarding  such  questions.  The  value  of  the 
influence  of  such  loans  on  trade  relations  can  not  be  overestimated. 

Failing  to  secure  foreign  loans  during  the  war,  as  provided  for  in  the 
new  laws  of  1916  and  1917,  the  Government  turned  to  the  policy  of 
internal  loans  along  the  line  of  the  bonds  called  ''Cedulas  de  Teso- 
reria, "  referred  to  herein,  but  this  method  has  been  strongly  opposed 
by  the  business  men  of  the  country  on  the  ground  that  the  Govern- 
ment thereby  takes  what  little  surplus  capital  there  is  in  the  country 
and  uses  it  for  public  improvemenjts,  principally  railways,  which 
should  be  built  by  foreign  capital,  thus  leaving  only  a  small  amount 
for  the  development  of  domestic  industries  and  national  resources 
which  will  provide  a  tonnage  for  the  new  railways. 

INTERNAL  DEBT. 

As  has  been  seen,  the  principal  revenue  of  the  Government  is  de- 
rived from  the  import  duties  on  merchandise  shipped  into  the  country, 
these  duties  amounting  to  about  75  or  80  per  cent  of  the  total  national 
revenue.  Next  in  importance  comes  the  revenue  derived  from  the 
national  salt  mines,  and,  third,  the  product  of  the  stamp  tax.  Ready 
funds  are  secured  by  drawing  on  the  customhouses  in  the  form  of 
"vales,"  or  vouchers,  which  are  really  treasury  warrants  payable  by 
the  customhouses  of  the  country.  These  treasury  bonds  are  accepted 
as  part  pavment  of  duties  on  imports  and  are  bought  up  by  the  mer- 
chants and  banks,  who  use  them  to  pay  import  duties,  national  taxes, 
etc.  As  their  local  market  value  is  determined  by  the  law  of  supply 
and  demand,  they  are  often  sold  at  as  low  as  a  30  per  cent  discount. 

The  internal  debt  of  Colombia  is  divided  into  two  classes,  the 
"Consolidated  Public  Debt"  and  the  "Floatmg  Public  Debt."  The^ 
first  is  constituted  of  the  so-called  "nominal  taxation,"  and  also  of 
the  annual  sum  to  be  paid  to  the  church  according  to  stipulations 
now  in  force  of  the  "Concordat©"  between  the  church  and  the 
Government. 

By  virtue  of  Law  No.  23,  of  1918,  all  of  the  old  principals  of  the 
Consolidated  Public  Debt  were  considered  as  imposed  in  silver  money 
values  and  to  be  reduced  to  the  new  gold  standard  at  the  rate  of 
250  for  100.  This  disposition,  though  considered  inequitable,  has  not 
been  opposed  by  the  interested  parties,  and  is  therefore  enforced. 


70        COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  following  items  were  allowed  in  January,  1919: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Public  inBtruction 660,662 

Charitable  institutions 149, 500 

Hospital  of  San  Juan  de  Dios: 

At  6  per  cent 179,728 

At  12  per  cent 89, 864 

Various  ecclesiastical  foundations 854,  048 

Nonreligious  foundations 436,  680 

The  principal  of  the  amount  owing  to  the  Department  of  Public 
Instruction  earns  10  per  cent  per  armum;  that  of  the  charitable  insti- 
tutions earns  6  per  cent  per  annum,  and  in  this  is  included  that  of  the 
religious  foundations  and  the  San  Juan  de  Dios  foundations  (the 
former  at  4^  per  cent  per  annum)  and  the  nonreligious  foundations 
at  3  per  cent  per  annum.  These  total  interest  charges  cause  an 
annual  charge  (outlay)  of  about  137,340  Colombian  dollars,  and  to 
this  must  be  added  the  annual  sum  of  82,000  dollars,  in  cash,  received 
by  the  church  as  indemnity  accorchng  to  the  Concordat©  (the  treaty 
between  the  Colombian  Government  and  the  Holy  See).  Service  of 
this  debt  is  made  every  six  months,  but  was  suspended  during  1918 
and  1919  on  account  of  the  financial  difficulties  of  the  Government. 

The  Floating  Internal  Public  Debt  consists  of  the  following  items: 

Vouchers  of  the  war  of  1898. 
Vouchers  of  the  war  of  1899. 
Military  compensation  vouchers.  * 
Colombian  bonds. 
Treasury  notes. 
Camboa  Road  bonds. 
Amaga  Railway  drafts. 
Antioquia  Railway  drafts. 
Caldas  Railway  drafts. 
Toliraa  Railway  drafts. 
Cauca  (Pacific)  Railway  drafts. 
Foreign  vouchers. 
Internal-debt  bonds. 
Treasury  promises  to  pay. 

The  grand  total  of  all  these  obligations  reached  the  sum  of  18,- 
989,861  Colombian  dollars,  but  14,802,406  dollars  had  been  retired 
up  to  the  beginning  of  1919,  leaving  only  an  effective  total  of  4,187,453 
dollars.  Many  writers  on  economics  in  Colombia  have  urged  the 
unification  oi  the  internal  debt  and  the  cession  of  the  perpetual 
character  of  the  "nominal  tax"  and  the  annual  indemnity  paid  to 
the  church,  but  this  has  not  been  done.  New  obligations  of  a  like 
character  are  constantly  being  created  on  account  of  the  fiscal  situa- 
tion of  the  Government  during  the  war,  when  many  similar  expe- 
dients were  adopted  to  meet  pressing  obligations.  A  full  list  of  these 
internal  obligations  follows,  with  a  statement  of  their  actual  status 
at  the  end  of  1918: 


GOVERNMENT,  EDUCATION,  AND   NATIONAL.  FINANCE. 


71 


Class  of  obligation. 


Treasury  bills 

4  per  cent  bonds  (special  issue) 

3  per  cent  floating  bonds 

Colombian  Government  bonds 

Camboa  Road  bonds 

Internal-debt  bonds 

Dorada  Railway  drafts  • 

Cartagena  Railway  drafts 

Antioquia  Railway  drafts 

Pacific  Railway  drafts 

Pacific  Railway  sjjecial  drafts 

Do 

Pacific  Railway  construction  drafts . 

Girardot  Railway  drafts 

Tolima  Railway  drafts 

Occidental  Railway  drafts 

Amaga  Railway  drafts 

Caldas  Railwai^  drafts 

Treasury  promises  to  pay: 

Old 

New 

Vouchers  of  war  of  1895 , 

Vouchers  of  war  of  1899 

Foreign  drafts 

Vouchers,  military  damage 

Treasury  vouchers  (new) 

Treasury  vouchers 

Tax  vouchers,  treasury 

Vouchers,  export  "primas  " . . 
Vouchers,  military  "rows" 


'  Ccses ' 


Total 39, 640, 34 


Total. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

40,860 

385,700 

15,861,158 

166, 722 

127,500 

120,000 

281,460 

710,000 

1, 138, 134 

190,000 

215,000 

2,536,129 

2,972,520 

300,000 

303, 187 

887.300 

542,328 

150,000 

82,034 

827,000 

57,334 

3,. 5.54, 841 

2,860,400 

821,229 

1,426,000 

2, 382, 339 

8,182 

458, 222 

244,768 


Paid. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

23,257 

382,700 

15,582,343 

165,765 

115,000 

63,330 

228,800 

683,500 

1,022,351 

183,000 

78,000 

2, 294, 971 

1,228,122 

263,000 

301,987 

877,300 

481, 750 


150 

826,425 

55,605 

3, 180, 789 

2, 853,  .560 

805, 421 

369, 114 

2,370,653 

500 

457,664 

244,766 


Balance 
due. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

17,603 

3,000 

278, 815 

957 

12,  .500 

56, 670 

52,660 

26,  .500 

115,783 

7,000 

137,000 

241, 158 

1, 744, 398 

37,000 

1,200 


60,578 
150,000 

81,884 

575 

1,729 

374,052 

6,840 

15,808 

1,056,886 

11,686 

7,682 

55S 

"2 


35,139,823        4,500,524 


1  The  "railway  drafts"  are  treasury  warrants  given  in  lieu  of  cash  payment  of  subsidies  allowed  by  rail- 
way (legislation,  usually  at  the  rate  of  10,000  or  15,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilometer  of  line  constructed, 
though  the  allowance  for  some  railways  is  higher,  according  to  contract. 

From  the  foregoing  figures  it  will  be  seen  that  at  the  end  of  1918 
the  internal  public  debt  of  Colombia  amounted  to  4,500,524  Colom- 
bian dollars,  carrying  an  annual  interest  charge  of  approximately 
220,000  dollars.  The  figure  given  above  nearly  agrees  with  the 
previous  total  of  4,187,455  dollars,  the  difference  being  accounted 
for  in  the  time  of  taking  off  the  balances  and  in  the  inclusion  in  the 
one  amount  of  various  small  items  not  taken  into  consideration  in  the 
first  figures  qiioted. 

The  balance  of  the  actual  fiscal  condition,  published  by  the  Minister 
of  the  Treasury  on  June  30,  1919,  showed  the  following  figures: 

Colombian 
•     dollars. 

Total  of  the  preseut  budget,  including  former  items 21,  800, 000 

Expenses  not  ordered  in  budget 2, 500, 000 

Balance  of  ordered  expenses 19,  300, 000 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Product  of  actual  revenue 10,  300, 000 

Treasury  vouchers  issued 1, 100, 000 

Bonds  issued 2, 500, 000 

Bank  loans 1, 600, 000 

15, 500, 000 
Difference. 3, 800, 000 


19,300,000  19,300,000 


72        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

To  the  above  deficit  should  be  added  the  bank  loans  of  1,000,000 
dollars  and  also  the  treasury  vouchers  retired,  which  reduce  the 
product  of  the  revenues  by  500,000  dollars,  leaving  a  total  deficit  for 
February,  1919,  of  5,900,000  dollars,  in  round  numbers.  There  is  also 
a  difference  of  about  1,000,000  dollars  in  the  amount  of  expenses 
ordered  for  April  and  March  of  1919  and  the  estimated  amount  of  the 
total  income  for  these  two  months,  making  the  probable  deficit 
6,900,000  dollars.  If  the  amount  of  "C6duTas  de  Tesoreria"  (in- 
ternal-loan bonds)  issued  up  to  February  28,  1919,  or  1,900,000 
dollars,  is  deducted  from  the  above,  the  net  deficit  is  then  5,000,000 
dollars,  roughly. 

According  to  the  presidential  message  of  June  30,  1919,  there  was 
the  following  money  in  circulation  in  Colombia  at  the  close  of  the 
fiscal  year  (all  values  in  Colombian  gold  dollars,  1  dollar  equalling 
$0.9733) : 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Colombian  gold  coin 7,  700, 000 

Colombian  paper  currency ^ 10, 180, 000 

Colombian  silver  coin 6, 460, 000 

Colombian  nickel  coin 1, 194, 000 

Treasury  notes  and  vouchers 3, 200, 000 

Bank  mortgage  notes 1, 200, 000 

Total 29,934,000 

To  the  above  amount  there  should  be  added  a  small  amount  of 
English  gold  coin  in  the  country  and  approximately  $9,000,000 
in  the  United  States  gold  coin  imported  into  Columbia  during  1919. 

The  final  calculation  of  the  1919-20  budget  shows:  Revenues, 
19,740,750  Colombian  dollars;  authorized  expenditures,  19,324,000 
dollars;  balance  in  favor  of  revenue,  416,750  dollars.  A  very  large 
increase  in  imports  was  noted  between  May  and  September,  1919, 
due  to  heavy  buying  in  the  United  States  of  all  sorts  of  merchandise, 
and  the  total  revenue  was  undoubtedly  much  greater  than  the  sum 
estimated. 


GENERAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  NATIONAL  INDUSTRIES. 

The  industries  of  Colombia  may  be  divided  roughly  into  four 
great  classes,  agriculture,  mining,  forest  products,  and  manufactur- 
ing— the  last-named  being  of  relatively  small  importance.  The 
most  important  of  the  national  industries,  agriculture,  may  be 
again  divided  into  planting  and  cattle  raising.  Mining,  of  next 
importance,  includes  gold  and  platinum  placer  mining,  vein  mining, 
coal,  salt,  and  petroleum,  the  last-mentioned  promising  to  be  of 
primary  importance  in  the  near  future  and  attracting  more  attention 
at  present  than  any  other  branch  of  development  in  the  country. 
Forest  products  embrace  medicinal  plants,  gums  and  balsams, 
and  lumber. 

Just  as  the  people,  living  conditions,  transportation,  etc.,  of 
Colombia  are  anected  by  the  broken  topography  of  the  country, 
so  are  the  industries  affected  and  divided  into  zones  or  districts, 
each  very  different  from  the  other  and  therefore  necessitating  a 
separate  study.     This  is  especially  true  of  agriculture. 

With  two  or  three  notable  exceptions,  agriculture  is  carried  on  in 
Colombia  in  the  most  primitive  manner.  Modern  machinerjf  and 
implements  are  almost  unknown,  and  there  are  entire  regions  without 
a  steel  plow  of  modern  make,  the  only  implement  being  the  universal 
machete.  However,  local  capital  is  being  attracted  by  agriculture 
in  the  coast  districts,  which  have  been  the  most  backward  in  develop- 
ment of  agricultural  resources,  and  it  may^  be  predicted  that  ma- 
chinery will  be  imported  in  greater  quantities  during  the  next  few 
years,  principally  for  sugar  cane,  rice,  and  cotton. 

In  mining,  great  contrasts  are  seen  in  the  country.     The  native 

f)lacer  miners  do  not  even  make  rockers  or  sluice  boxes,  but  depend 
argely  upon  the  wooden  ''pan"  or  ''batea"  for  washing;  while 
near  by  one  may  find  some  of  the  most  modern  dredgers,  dams, 
and  placer-mining  ecjuipment,  costing  millions  of  dollars  and  owned 
by  foreign  companies,  principally  English  and  American.  The 
same  contrast  may  be  observed  in  the  case  of  quartz  and  vein  mines. 
In  manufacturing,  greater  improvement  and  modernity  are  seen 
than  in  any  other  Tine.  Textile  plants  are  very  well  equipped,  and 
the  newer  mills  contain  the  very  latest  textile  machinery  and  equip- 
ment. It  is  in  this  line  that  the  greatest  development  may  be 
expected  durii^  the  next  few  years.  Orders  for  new  textile  plants 
and  ec^uipment  and  extensions  for  old  plants  are  limited  only  by  the 
manufacturers'  ability  to  deliver  the  machinery,  and  recent  new 
mills  have  capitalizations  as  high  as  600,000  Colombian  dollars. 
In  the  interior  there  is  an  abundance  of  easily  developed  hydro- 
electric power,  and  new  plants  are  designed  to  use  this  class  of  power. 
Many  small  towns,  heretofore  lacking  electric  lighting  plants,  are 
now  ordering  equipments. 

The  location  of  a  petroleum  refinery  at  Barranca  Bermeja  on  the 
Magdalena  River  by  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  will  increase  the  purchase 
and  use  of  many  different  kinds  of  machinery,  principally  those  of 

73 


74        COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  ' HANDBOOK. 

small  units.  The  production  of  residual  fuel  oil  by  this  refinery  will 
also  greatly  assist  river-steamer  navigation  by  reducing  the  weight 
of  the  fuel  (wood  is  now  carried) .  It  will  allow  more  tonnage  or 
less  draft  when  the  river  is  low  and  will  obviate  the  loss  of  time  in 
loading  wood  fuel,  thereby  facilitating  the  movement  of  freight  on 
the  main  transportation  highway  of  the  country,  the  Magdalen  a 
River. 

Large  quantities  of  wheat,  cotton,  lard,  and  rice  were  formerly 
imported  oy  Colombia — principally  from  the  United  States,  prior 
to  the  war.  During  the  war  these  commodities  could  not  be  secured 
in  sufficient  quantities,  very  high  prices  prevailed,  and  there  was 
difficulty  on  account  of  the  shortage  of  ocean  tonnage;  so  eflForts 
were  made  to  stimulate  domestic  production  of  these  staples.  As  a 
result,  the  importation  of  lard  has  been  entirely  suspended,  the 
country  now  producing  enough  for  its  own  use  and  even  exporting 
to  Cuba  and  Panama.  More  wheat  has  been  produced  in  the  in- 
terior, principally  on  the  high  table-land  of  Bogota,  and  shipped  to 
the  coast  regions  or  milled  in  Bogota  and  Medellin.  More  corn  has 
been  raised  in  the  country,  and  during  the  war  a  small  surplus  was 
even  shipped  to  the  United  States,  because  of  the  high  prices  ob- 
taining here  at  that  time.  The  production  of  cotton  for  the  local 
textile  mills  has  been  increased  in  the  Barranquilla  district,  cotton 
being  sent  into  the  interior  as  far  as  Medellin,  where  there  are  several 
large  textile  mills.  Attention  has  been  given  to  rice  cultivation  in 
the  Cartagena-Sinu  region,  where  conditions  of  soil,  climate,  and 
moisture  are  good.  Up  to  1920,  however,  the  yield  has  fiot  been 
sufficient  to  supply  the  demand  even  of  the  coast  region,  where  rice 
is  an  important  staple  formerly  imported  in  large  amounts  from  the 
United  States,  but  it  can  be  predicted  that  the  production  will  be 
greatly  increased  in  the  near  future  through  the  adoption  of  modern 
methods  of  rice  cultivation  on  a  scale  never  before  (attempted  in 
Colombia. 

Manufacturing  also  received  an  impetus  from  the  trade  restric- 
tions of  the  war  period.  Prices  of  domestic  manufactures  are  fixed 
by  the  cost  of  the  imported  articles  of  the  same  quality,  and  the 
heavy  advance  in  price  of  all  merchandise  spelled  increased  profits 
and  prosperity  for  the  Colombian  manufacturer,  allowing  large 
surpluses  to  be  created  for  ultimate  investment  in  increased  jwoduc- 
tion  facilities  at  such  time  as  deliveries  can  be  secured  on  machinery 
and  equipment  for  factories  of  many  kinds. 

Colomoian    industry    (consisting    principally    of    textile  mills")  is 

f)rotected  by  a  high  import  tariff,  which,  combined  with  the  low 
abor  wage,  more  than  offsets  the  disadvantage  to  #the  Colombian 
manufacturer  of  having  to  import  most  of  his  raw  materials  and 
all  of  his  machinery,  ecjuipment,  and  factory  supplies.  It  may  be 
predicted  that  domestic  manufacturing  will  be  greatly  increased 
during  the  next  few  years. 

As  a  direct  result  of  the  scarcity  and  high  prices  of  imported 
articles  and  the  increasing  cost  of  living,  wages  in  all  lines  have  been 
increased,  and  these  increases  have  been  continued  to  keep  pace  with 
the  steadily  advancing  prices  of  necessities.  The  effect  nas  been 
felt,  to  a  greater  extent  than  elsewhere,  in  Santa  Marta,  Barran- 
quilla, and  Cartagena  and  up  the  Magdalena  River  Valley  in  trans- 
portation lines  of  labor.     The  interior  districts  of  Bogota  and  Boyaca 


GENERAL.  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  NATIONAL   INDUSTRIES.        75 

have  not  been  so  much  affected  in  agricultural  lines,  though  office 
einployees  and  others  have  received  substantial  increases. 

There  was  a  shortage  of  labor  in  1919  for  the  heavy  and  very 
valuable  coffee  crop,  which  commanded  such  high  prices  in  New 
York,  and  wages  never  before  known  were  paid  to  coffee  pickers 
and  cleaners,  averaging,  in  some  districts  (notably  Caldas),  as  high 
as  $1.20  gold  per  day. 

Mining  in  all  branches  was  greatly  affected  in  Colombia  during  the 
war,  this  being  true  not  only  of  the  native  placer  miners  using  very 

f)rimitive  methods  but  also  of  the  large  foreign  companies  operating 
arge  placer  and  vein  mine  holdings  equipped  with  modem  machinery, 
dredges,  etc. 

The  extraordinarily  high  prices  obtained  for  platinum,  a  war 
necessity — the  price  being  fixed  by  the  United  States  Government 
at  SI 05  per  ounce  during  the  war  and  reaching  still  higher  levels 
after  the  armistice — attracted  an  increased  number  of  workers 
from  the  coast  river  regions  to  the  west  of  Cartagena,  from  western 
and  northern  Antioquia,  and  from  the  Buenaventura  coast  region 
to  the  placer  ground  of  the  upper  Atrato  and  San  Juan  Rivers,  and 
production  was  increased  despite  the  unfavorable  weather  condi- 
tions of  1918,  when  abundant  rains  were  lacking  and  in  many  districts 
there  was  not  enough  water  for  platinum  washing. 

The  principal  production  of  gold  is  by  large  dredging  companies 
located  in  northern  Antioquia  and  in  the  west-coast  gold-platinimi 
districts.  These  companies  were  directly  affected  by  the  restric- 
tions imposed  on  production  through  war  taxation — the  very  high 
income  (or  production-profits)'  tax  making  it  better  policy  for  the 
companies  to  hold  over  the  richest  ground  until  after  the  high  taxes- 
had  been  removed  and  in  the  meantime  only  work  low-grade  ground 
to  meet  expenses  and  keep  their  organizations  together,  thereby 
curtailing  the  production  oi  gold,  even  though  operating  expenses 
had  enormously  increased  on  account  of  the  extraordinary  cost  of 
new  machinery,  equipment,  and  supplies. 

The  demand  for  platinum  during  the  war  and  the  shutting  off  of 
the  Russian  supply  stimulated  interest  in  platinum  production  in 
Colombia,  where  combinations  of  old  dredging  companies  were 
formed,  new  plants  were  introduced,  and  new  ground  was  opened 
up  for  dredging.  However,  the  delays  in  the  delivery  of  machinery 
and  its  installation  on  the  ground  prevented  this  increased  produc- 
tion from  being  felt  very  greatly  until  after  the  armistice,  the  main 
increase  in  platinum  production  coming  from  the  native  miners. 

The  war  also  affected  the  development  of  new  vein  mining  and 
hydraulic  properties  in  the  interior.  Deliveries  could  not  be  ob- 
tained on  new  equipment,  and  the  high  cost  of  new  machinery  and 
equipment,  and  the  very  high  operating  costs,  curtailed  new  de- 
velopment except  in  a  few  cases  of  very  rich  and  proven  properties. 
Since  the  armistice,  however,  there  has  been  an  increased  interest 
in  Colombia  in  mining  properties,  and  it  may  be  predicted  that  this 
industry  will  receive  more  attention. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 

GENERAL  SURVEY  OF  RESOURCES. 

Unlike  the  agricultural  products  of  the  country — which  are  of  all 
kinds,  both  tropical  and  of  the  temperate  zone — the  forest  products 
of  Colombia  are  all  tropical  in  their  nature.  They  may  be  divided 
into  several  large  classes,  namely,  medicinal  plants,  gums  and  bal- 
sams, tanning-extract  materials,  and  lumber — the  last-named  being 
of  relatively  small  importance  so  far  as  exportation  is  concerned! 
Oil  nuts,  coconuts,  and  fibers  are  also  potentially  important  products, 
but  are  little  developed.  There  exist  in  many  places  large  natural 
supplies  of  oil  nuts,  such  as  those  of  the  corozo  palm,  and  also  large 
areas  of  native  fibers,  such  as  the  "fique,"  a  specie  of  henequen, 
and  the  "pita,"  related  to  the  pineapple  family  and  producing  a  very 
long,  fine,  and  strong  fiber  that  is  little  used  except  by  the  natives. 
Varnish  gums  are  little  known  or  exploited  but  exist  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Another  important  forest  product  is  the  "  tagua"  or  vegetable 
ivory,  which  is  of  mterest  to  the  United  States  now  that  this  countrv 
is  becoming  the  largest  button-manufacturing  nation  in  the  world. 

The  relatively  low  value  and  large  bulk  of  most  forest  products, 
combined  with  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities  in  the  country, 
restrict  the  exploitation  to  areas  that  are  more  or  less  accessible  from 
either  the  Caribbean  or  the  Pacific  coast  or  the  many  navigable 
rivers  of  the  interior  which  afford  an  outlet  to  the  coast.  Vast  areas 
of  the  more  isolated  interior  contain  great  quantities  of  "tagua," 
"cinchona"  bark,  rubber,  chicle,  divi-divi,  fibers,  and  the  like,  but 
are  untouched  because  of  the  lack  of  labor  and  population  and  the 
absence  of  transportation  even  by  pack  mule  or  canoe. 

Among  the  forest  products  of  Colombia  are  the  following: 

MEDICINAL   BARKS,  BOOTS,  AND  EXTRACTS. 

Cinchona  bark  (quinine). 

Ipeqac. 

Sarsaparilla. 

Cascara  amarga  \"  Honduras  bark  " :  tonic'). 

Winter's  bark  (Drimys  Winteri;  tonic  and  scurvy  remedy). 

Bimaruba  (tonic;  bark  of  root). 

Krameria  (phatany  bark). 

Spigellia  (worm  remedy). 

Aloes  extract. 

BALSAMS    AND   OUMS. 

Balsam  of  copaiba. 

Balsam  of  Tolu. 

Copal  gum  r'algarrobillo"). 

RESINS,   WAXES,  AND  VARNISHES. 

Camaubawax  {Camahubnra). 

Quika  rCsin  ( Cercidium  spinosum,  TuUane). 

Ceroxylon  ( Ceroxylon  andicola). 

76 


FOREST  PRODUCTS.  .  77 

VEGETABLE    OILS. 

Corozo  palm  nuts  (also  "cuesco";  like  "cohune"  nut  of  West  Indies). 

Noli  palm  nuts  (species,  Elaeis,  related  to  West  Africa  commercial  oil  palm). 

Coconuts. 

Tagua  (vegetable  ivory). 

TANNING  BARKS  AND  EXTRACTS. 

Mangle  bark. 

Di\'i-divi. 

Algarroba  bean. 

Ginger  (found  wild  near  Rio  Hacha). 

RUBBER   AND   CHICLE   GUMS. 


Balata  (plant,  Sapotaceae). 

Lirio  gum. 

Chicle. 

Rubber  ("caucho  negro''). 

Rubber  (Para  rubber,  Herea  or Sirigna). 


DYEWOODS    AND    DYES, 


Brazil  wood  (exported  from  Rio  Hacha  district). 
V        Indigo. 

MEDICINAL  PLANTS. 

QUININE. 

'Fifty  years  ago  Colombia  led  in  the  production  of  "cinchona" 
bark  or  quinine.  In  1875  about  $9,733,000  worth  of  this  article 
alone  was  exported,  but  the  cultivation  of  quinine  in  Java  and  the 
British  East  Indies,  where  the  alkaloid  content  was  greatly  increased 
by  scientific  methods  of  cultivation,  destroyed  the  industry  in 
Colombia  through  the  resulting  drop  in  price.  It  was  no  longer 
profitable  to  gather  the  bark  in  Colombia,  where  production  was  also 
gradually  reduced  by  wasteful  and  careless  methods  of  collection,  the 
trees  producing  the  valuable  bark  being  in  many  cases  destroyed. 
Also,  the  Colombian  product  was  discredited  by  reason  of  the  adul- 
teration with  other  barks  similar  in  appearance  but  not  containing  a 
high  alkaloid  content.  In  Colombia  there  is  a  great  variety  of 
cinchona  trees,  with  the  alkaloid  content  varying  greatly. 

In  1879  the  sulphate  of  quinine  reached  the  high  price  of  16s.  6d. 
($4.01)  an  ounce,  but  in  1883  it  dropped  to  3s.  6d.  ($0.85)  and  in 
1885  quinine  was  worth  only  2s.  6d.  ($0.61)  an  ounce  and  the  industry 
in  Colombia  received  its  death  blow. 

The  great  areas  of  production  at  that  time  were  the  tropical 
forests  and  plains  of  the  Amazon  watershed  to  the  south,  along  the 
head  waters  of  the  Apaporis  and  Caqueta  Rivers,  the  tree  being 
found  also  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes  east  and  south  of  Pasto. 

In  1917  Colombia  was  visited  by  Dr.  H.  H.  Rusby,  dean  of  the 
College  of  Pharmacy  of  the  city  of  New  Yoek,  accompanied  by  a 
corps  of  assistants,  the  principal  object  of  the  expedition  being  to 
search  for  medicinal  drugs,  particularly  different  varieties  of  cin- 
chona, with  the  idea  of  discovering  a  species  that  would  yield  a 
higher  percentage  of  the  valuable  alkaloid  than  the  kinds  ordinarily 
known. 

It  has  been  thought  that  the  quinine  industry  of  Colombia  can  be 
revived  by  the  discovery  of  some  simple  method  of  refining  the  crude 
bark  in  the  forests — the  alkaloid  thus  procured  to  be  re&aed  at  the 


78        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

laboratories  later.     There  have  been  no  recent  exports  of  cinchona 
bark  from  Colombia. 

The  country  is  exceedingly  rich  in  all  sorts  of  medicinal  plants, 
wax  palms,  oil  seeds  and  nuts,  dyes,  etc.,  but,  as  has  been  remarked, 
exploitation  has  been  carried  out  only  in  the  accessible  regions 
adjacent  to  navigable  rivers  or  to  the  coast. 

IPECAC. 

The  principal  supply  of  ipecac  comes  from  the  port  of  Cartagena 
and  is  gathered  in  the  valley  of  the  Sinu  River,  southwest  of  Carta- 
gena, where  the  plant  grows  wild.  In  recent  years  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  supply  has  also  been  gathered  along  the  valley  of  the 
Atrato  River. 

The  ipecac  of  commerce  is  shipped  from  Cartagena  in  the  form 
of  the  dried  roots,  the  quantities  exported  to  the  United  States  being 
as  follows : 


Years. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

1915 

11.%  078 
64,781 
26,458 
47, 181 
28,071 

U.S. 
currency. 
$248,524 

1916 

155,323 

1917 

42,506 
98,564 

1918 

1919 

59,167 

SARSAPARILLA. 

I 

Sarsaparilla  grows  in  the  drier  forests  of  the  Cordilleras  on  both 
sides  of  the  Magdalena  River  Valley  and  is  sold  principally  in  Carta- 
gena. The  root  is  obtained  from  a  species  of  smilax  (probably  Smilax 
Omato,  Hook.  F.) ,  a  wide  climbing  plant  ascending  lofty  trees.  The 
plant  has  a  stout  rhizome  which  throws  off  slender  cylindrical  roots 
that  creep  for  several  feet  a  few  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
These  roots  are  gathered  by  the  natives,  dried,  and  packed  in  bundles 
for  shipment  to  the  coast  lor  export. 

No  statistics  are  available  to  show  the  exact  amounts  of  sarsapa- 
rilla exported  from  Colombian  ports,  but  the  total  quantity  is  small 
as  compared  with  the  ipecac  exports  mentioned  above. 

The  work  of  gathering  these  plants  is  desultory  and. seasonal,  the 
natives  usually  choosing  the  dry  season  for  penetrating  into  the 
forests  to  gather  them.  There  is  no  organized  system  for  the  work, 
though  numerous  concessions  have  been  granted  to  foreigners  and 
natives  alike  for  the  exploitation  of  forest  products  on  a  large  scale. 
These  efforts  have  all  come  to  naught  on  account  of  the  topographical 
and  climatic  conditions  and  the  small  and  unreliable  labor  supply 
available — the  Negroes  and  mulattoes  of  the  river  regions  being  per- 
suaded to  go  into  the  interior  of  the  valleys  only  when  impelled  to 
do  so  by  a  bad  crop  season  or  lack  of  other  employment  along  the 
river. 

A  few  of  the  general-merchandise  traders  of  Cartagena  and  Bar- 
ranquilla  have  a  knowledge  of  medicinal  plants  and  for  years  have 
carried  on  a  business  in  them,  receiving  them  from  agents  in  the  inte- 
rior who  trade  goods  (principally  cheap  cotton  textiles)  for  these 
products,  with  the  native  gatnerers. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


79 


"BALSAM  OF  COPAIBA"  AND  "BALSAM  OF  TOLU." 

"Balsam  of  copaiba"  and  ''balsam  of  Tolu"  are  exported  from 
both  Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  and  are  gathered  over  a  wide  range 
of  countrv,  including  the  Magdalena  River  Valley  and  the  region 
south  andf  west  of  Cartagena.  The  balsam  of  Tolu  takes  its  name 
from  the  town  of  Tolu,  on  the  Bay  of  Morrosquillo,  southwest  of  Car- 
tagena and  near  the  mouth  of  tne  Sinu  River,  since  from  this  port 
the  principal  supply  is  shipped  to  Cartagena. 

Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  have  exported  balsams  to  the  United 
States  in  the  following  values : 


Cartagena. 

Barran- 
quilla, 
all 
balsams. 

Years. 

Balsam  of 
copaiba. 

Balsam  of 
Tolu. 

1913 

U.S. 

currency. 

$1,887 

14,189 

12,517 

U.S. 
currency. 
$10, 165 

U.S. 
currency. 
$29,638 
15,584 
27  944 

1914                                            

1915.                        

1916 

3,726 
1,463 

22  150 

1917.                                                         

1,750 
3,804 
1,767 

13  180 

1918       .             .   .     .              

42,066 
119  198 

1919 

1920 

C) 

97,264 

a  Figures  not  available. 


The  "canime"  or  ''copaiba"  tree  (Copaifera  officinalu,  L.),  which 
yields  the  balsam  of  copaiba,  an  important  oleo-resin  contained  in 
the  secretion  I  ducts  throughout  the  entire  length  of  the  tree,  is  found 
in  all  tropical  and  semitropical  Colombia,  including  the  area  to  the 
east  of  the  Magdalena  River  Valley,  the  southern  mterior,  and  the 
west  coast.  It  is  collected  by  cuttmg  a  deep  V-shaped  incision  into 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  near  the  base  and  penetrating  to  the  center  of 
the  tree.  Into  the  plate-like  cavity  thus  made  is  discharged  the  oleo- 
resin,  which  is  transferred  to  old  kerosene  tins.  From  three  to  four  of 
these  tins — holding,  when  full,  5  gallons  each — are  frequently  col- 
lected from  a  single  tree;  the  yield,  however,  is  very  variable,  ajid 
some  trees  yield  but  little  balsam.  A  tree  yields  this  valuable  prod- 
uct only  once,  since  the  incision  reaches  the  heart  of  the  tree  and  pre- 
vents it  from  secreting  the  balsam  the  second  time. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  medicinal  roots  and  barks,  and  also  with 
chicle  and  rubber,  there  is  little  organization  connected  with  the  gath- 
ering of  balsam  products,  the  work  being  carried  on  in  a  casual  and 
seasonal  manner  by  the  natives.  In  some  cases  the  mulattoes  and 
Negroes  of  the  river  valleys  have  preempted  large  areas  of  the  forests 
around  their  villages  and  exercise  some  sort  of  a  recognized  claim  on 
mutually  understood  areas  so  long  as  trails  are  kept  open  with  the 
machete  and  the  trees  tapped  regularly  in  season. 

The  number  of  copaiba  trees  on  a  given  area  varies  very  greatly, 
and  at  best  they  are  scattered  through  the  forests,  with  only  a  few 
trees  to  the  acre.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  plantations 
of  this  tree,  as  has  been  done  with  rubber  trees,  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  production  of  the  balsam  of  copaiba  could  be  greatly  in- 
creased in  Colombia  if  the  labor  situation  were  better. 


80        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
OTHER  MEDICINAL  PLANTS  AND  PRODUCTS. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  variety  of  other  medicinal  plants  that 
are  abundant  in  the  country,  the  only  medicinal  export  from  Colom- 
bia other  than  ipecac,  sarsaparilla,  and  the  balsams  of  copaiba  and 
Tolu,  is  the  extract  of  aloes,  produced  near  Rio  Hacha  on  tne  Goajira 
Peninsula,  on  the  plantation  of  a  progressive  Colombian,  Senor 
Loises  C.  Henriquez.  The  quantity  exported  in  1915  was  253  kilos 
(557.7  pounds),  and  during  the  firet  six  months  of  1916,  460  kilos 
(1,014  pounds).  No  recent  statistics  are  available.  The  industry  is 
in  its  infancy,  being  new  to  the  locality  and  also  to  Colombia,  though 
the  plants  grow  wild  in  the  vicinity.  The  aloe. plant  requires  a  dry 
soil,  and  the  leaves  are  ripe  for  the  extraction  of  aloes  in  the  dry  sea- 
son when  they  assume  a  colored  hue.  Aloes  is  a  well-known  domestic 
drug  in  Colombia,  plants  being  grown  in  almost  every  garden  in  the 
tropical  and  subtropical  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  dry  leaves  are 
to  be  found  for  sale  in  most  public  markets  of  the  larger  towns.  It 
is  presumed  that  small  quantities  of  the  dried  leaves  have  been 
exported  from  Colombia,  but  there  are  no  statistical  records  to  show 
the  amounts. 

RESINS,  VEGETABLE  WAXES,  AND  VARNISHES. 

There  is  in  Colombia  a  great  variety  of  resins,  vegetable  waxes, 
and  varnishes,  but  they  are  little  exploited  and  almost  unknown 
among  the  people  of  the  country.  There  are  undoubtedly  many  of 
commercial  value,  but  the  difficulties  are  lack  of  labor  and  inaccessi- 
bility. 

Tne  ceroxylon  palm  is  verj  abundant  in  Colombia,  there  being  two 
known  and  recognized  species.  The  ceroxylon  palm  of  the  eastern 
Andes  is  apparently  distinct  from  the  Ceroxyton  andicola  of  the 
Quindio  region  of  the  Central  Cordillera,  having  a  slender  bole  only 
20  to  30  centimeters  in  diameter  but  growing  to  a  height  of  30  meters 
and  presenting  a  very  beautiful  appearance.  This  palm  occurs  at  all 
altitudes  from  1,300  to  9,000  feeUabove  sea  level  and  is  found  in  all 
the  Andine  regions  of  Colombia,  sometimes  in  small  groves  and  some- 
times scattered.  The  species  of  this  palm  found  in  the  eastern  vVndes 
produces  less  wax  than  the  Quindio  variety,  which  is  very  similar  in 
its  product  to  the  "carnauba"  wax  of  Brazil  and  the  "candelilla" 
wax  of  Mexico,  except  that  the  melting  point  (93°  C.)  is  higher,  that 
of  carnauba  wax  being  84°  C.  and  of  candelilla  70°  to  72°  C. 

This  wax  is  produced  by  the  leaves  of  the;  palm  and  also  scraped 
from  the  trunk  in  the  form  of  a  hard,  brittle,  yellowish-brown  or 
grayish  substance.  It  is  refined  by  throwing  it  into  boiling  water. 
It  has  been  used  for  centuries  by  the  natives  of  the  Andean  region 
for  making  candles,  but  has  never  been  exported  in  commercial 
quantities  from  Colombia,  nor  has  any  organized  attempt  been 
made  to  exploit  it. 

Like  the  carnauba  palm  of  Brazil,  the  ceroxylon  palm  of  Colombia 
serves  a  number  of  domestic  purposes.  The  long  boles  are  used  for 
fencing  and  for  hut  construction;  the  heart,  called  "palmito,"  is  a 
palataole  food;  the  roots  possess  medicinal  qualities;  and  the  fibers 
are  employed  for  the  manufacture  of  crude  homemade  brooms,  ropes, 
mats,  etc.  The  palm  has  the  ability  to  withstand  extreme  drought, 
which  makes  it  especially  valuable.     The  wax  yield  varies,  but  on 


FOBEST  PRODUCTS.  81 

an  average  about  10,000  leaves  are  required  to  produce  100  pounds 
of  wax. 

The  wax  is  employed  in  many  ways  in  modem  industry.  Its 
high  melting  point  and  ability  to  take  a  high  ^loss  when  polished 
make  it  a  valuable  ingredient  in  floor  and  furniture  polish,  phono- 
graph records,  cable  coverings,  electrical  insulation  cornpositions, 
tailors'  chalk,  carbon  copy  paper,  etc.  The  industry  in  Brazil  has 
increased  greatly  since  the  outoreak  of  the  war.  Hamburg  was  for- 
merly the  principal  market,  but  large  quantities  went  to  Liverpool. 
There  are  different  grades  of  carnauba  wax — "yellow  floor,"  "yellow 
prime,"  and  "yellow."  The  last  two  grades  are  derived  from  the 
older  plants  and  bring  lower  prices.  Carnauba  wax  is  refined  in 
industry  by  remelting  and  straining,  and  it  is  bleached  by  treatment 
with  potassium  dichromate  or  with  Fuller's  earth.  Paraffin  is  often 
added  to  lower  its  melting  point. 

"Quika"  resin  is  a  new  product  found  throughout  the  Goajira 
Peninsula  of  Colombia.  It  is  produced  by  a  small  tree  {Cercidium 
spinosum,  Tidsane),  the  branches  and  trunk  being  covered  by  this 
resin,  and  also  the  roots  when  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air.  A 
single  tree  is  said  to  yield  several  pounds  of  the  resin,  and,  as  the 
tree  is  very  abundant  in  certain  parts  of  the  Peninsula,  it  is  thought 
that,  if  the  product  is  commercially  useful,  it  might  be  exported. 
Samples  have  been  sent  by  the  agricultural  department  of  the 
Colombian  Government  to  Europe  and  the  United  States  for  analysis 
and  introduction  to  commerce. 

The  Indians  of  the  Pasto  region  have  an  ancient  industry  in  making 
the  celebrated  "Pasto"  varnish,  which  they  color  and  use  for  cover- 
ing gourds  and  wooden  utensils  of  various  kinds.  This  varnish  is 
also  the  product  of  a  palm,  possibly  related  to  the  cyroxylon  palm  of 
the  regions  farther  to  the  north. 

OILSEEDS  AND  PALM  KERNELS. 

A  variety  of  palm-oil  nuts  is  found  in  Colombia,  but  the  industry 
is  not  exploited  to  any  extent  as  yet,  though  a  recent  effort  to  estab- 
lish an  oil  mill  at  Barranquilla  has  been  made  by  an  American  vege- 
table-oil expert  associated  with  a  Colombian.  This  new  plant  is  to 
crush  the  "corozo  "  palm  nuts  and  refine  the  oil  for  export,  principally 
to  France,  where  there  is  a  better  market  than  in  the  United  States. 

The  corozo  palm  is  abundant  throughout  tropical  Colombia  and  is 
found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Carribbean  coast  regions,  where  it 
grows  in  the  dense  forests.  Where  lands  have  been  cleared  for  cattle 
pastures,  these  palms  are  left  to  afford  shade,  and  it  is  planned  at 
some  future  date  to  utilize  them  for  vegetable  oil,  which  these  nuts 
contain  in  a  very  high  percentage  and  of  rich  quality.  This  oil  has 
long  been  extracted  ana  used  by  the  Indians  and  Negroes  of  the  trop- 
ical regions  as  a  sort  of  vegetable  butter  and  food  product.  The 
corozo  nut  is  similar  to  or  the  same  as  the  "cohune  palm  nut  of 
Central  America.  It  grows  in  all  localities  of  the  Magdalena  River 
Valley  and  also  in  the  lower  Cauca  Valley,  in  the  west-coast  region. 
The  yield  of  nuts  from  the  palms  is  very  heavy,  100  pounds  or  more 
being  produced  by  each  plant  every  season,  and  the  percentage  of 
extraction  of  oil  is  also  rather  high.  This  product  should  be  impor- 
tant for  the  coast  regions  and  the  Magdalena  Valley,  since  these  nuts 

37558°— 21 6 


82        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

are  easily  gathered  in  great  abundance  over  a  wide  area;  but  the 
trouble  is  tne  lack  of  labor  and  the  high  cost  of  freight,  amounting  to 
about  5  cents  per  pound  from  the  interior  of  the  Magdalena  Valley 
via  the  river  to  the  coast  towns.  In  1915  Senor  C.  T.  Matias,  of 
Bogota,  was  given  a  concession  by  the  Colombian  Government  for  20 
years  to  export  corozo  and  other  palm  nuts  from  the  region  of  the 
Chiriguana  Kiver  in  the  Departments  of  Santander  and  Magdalena. 
It  is  to  be  hoped  that  the  small  oil  mill  established  at  Barranquillii 
will  prove  to  oe  the  beginning  of  a  new  and  profitable  industry  for 
the  country. 

Other  oil-producing  palm  nuts  are  the  ''tucan,"  commercially 
known  as  "Panama  kernels,"  which  are  harder  and  tougher  than  the 
ordinary  palm  kernels  or  copra  and  yield  from  37  to  48  per  cent  by 
weight  01  a  cream-colored,  fatty  oil  similar  to  that  of  tne  ordinary 
palm  kernels,  but  with  a  slightly  higher  melting  point.  The  tucan 
Kernels  bring  $5  to  $10  less  per  ton  than  the  fine  palm"  kernels  of 
Panama  and  Central  America.  Other  varieties  of  palm  kernels  are 
produced  and  shipped  from  Brazil,  Paraguay,  Ecuador,  and  Venezuela. 

COCONUTS. 

The  principal  coconut-producing  region  of  Colombia  is  the  coast 
southwest  of  Cartagena,  where  there  are  a  number  of  small  groves 
owned  and  farmed  by  the  Negroes  and  mulattoes  of  the  region. 
This  is  the  only  section  of  the  Colombian  coast  where  coconuts  are 
grown  in  anything  like  commercial  quantities,  though  the  palms 
are  found  from  Rio  Hacha  to  the  Panama  boundary  and  all  along 
the  Pacific  coast,  where  they  produce  better  farther  south  in  the 
region  of  Tumaco,  out  of  the  heavy-rain  belt. 

The  coconut  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  among  the  people  of  all  classes 
on  the  coasts,  in  the  river  valleys,  and  even  as  far  inland  as  Medellin. 
Local  market  prices  range  at  times  as  high  as  20  cents  per  nut, 
higher  than  the  export  price  paid  for  coconuts  at  Colon,  and  this 
factor,  combined  with  the  low  production,  prevents  the  nuts  from 
attaining  any  great  importance  as  an  article  of  export,  although  there 
is  every  indication  that  conditions  are  very  good  for  extensive 
plantations  of  the  palm  along  the  coast  from  Cartagena  toward  the 
Bay  of  Uraba.  At  the  present  time  the  largest  and  more  frequent 
groves  are  along  the  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Morrosquillo,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Sinu  River,  west  of  Cartagena,  and  the  nuts  are  brought  into 
the  Cartagena  market  in  small  launches  and  sailing  canoes  of  the 
natives. 

There  is  also  a  considerable  trade  in  coconuts  with  Colon,  carried 
on  by  small  schooners  which  trade  with  the  natives  along  the  coast, 
exchanging  "trade  goods"  (principally  cheap  cotton  textiles)  for 
nuts,  platinum,  gold  dust,  dried  beef,  and  tne  like — lard  and  live 
poultry  also  being  items  in  this  traffic,  which  is  mainly  contraband 
in  its  nature. 

The  value  (in  United  States  currency)  of  the  coconuts  exported 
from  Cartagena  to  the  United  States  during  six  recent  years  has  been 
as  follows:  1914,  $31,798;  1915,  $1,870;  1916,  $35,176;  1917,  $18,626; 
1918,  $2,656;  1919,  $5,369. 

The  falling  off  of  exports  of  coconuts  in  1918  and  1919  has  been 
caused  by  the  increase  in  schooner  trading  with  Panama,  as  noted, 


FOREST  PRODUCTS.  83 

and  the  lower  prices  being  obtained  for  copra  in  the  United  Stales, 
making  it  more  profitable  to  market  the  raw  nuts  locally  in  Carta- 
gena for  domestic  consumption.  The  increase  of  candy  making  in 
the  interior,  principally  at  Medellin  and  Bogota,  where  modem  candy 
factories  have  been  started,  is  also  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  better 
domestic  demand  for  coconuts.  Another  factor  is  the  movement  of 
the  population,  which  is  coming  in  from  the  outlying  districts  to 
the  coast  cities,  being  attracted  by  the  factory  employment,  the 
better  living  conditions,  and  also  the  better  wages  procured  iji  dock 
and  freight  work,  etc.  This  movement  tends  to  decrease  the  out- 
put of  foodstuffs  in  the  interior  and  make  the  demand  greater  in  the 
cities  of  the  coast. 

For  these  reasons  the  values  placed  on  groves  is  high  as  compared 
with  those  in  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies,  Central  America,  Mexico, 
and  the  South  Sea  islands,  a  grove  being  valued  at  the  rate  of  S5 
for  each  producing  palm  over  six  years  of  age.  Each  palm  is  esti- 
mated to  produce  a  net  return  of  SI  each  year  and  to  produce  20  per 
cent  annually  of  its  valuation. 

It  can  not  be  predicted  that  the  production  of  coconuts  will  in- 
crease in  Colombia;  labor  is  too  scarce,  even  though  conditions  are 
good.  Recently  quite  large  shipments  have  been  made  from  Tumaco 
and  Buenaventura.  In  the  first-named  region  conditions  are  ideal 
on  the  low,  sandy  islands  or  coast  reaches  removed  from  the  line  of 
the  open  seas  and  the  danger  of  heavy  winds.  The  production  seems 
to  be  slightly  increasing  around  Tumaco,  but  labor  is  lacking  for 
any  great  improvement. 

TANNING  BARKS  AND  EXTRACTS. 

Of  tanning  materials  Colombia  exports  three  kinds,  mangrove 
bark,  divi-divi  pods,  and  quebracho  wood — the  last-named  in  small 
amounts,  however.  The  prepared  extract  of  mangrove  bark  has 
also  been  exported  to  the  United  States  from  Cartagena,  where  a 
large  factory  was  erected  several  years  ago  which  finally  proved  to 
be  a  failure  and  has  since  suspended  operations. 

Mangrove  bark  is  gathered  in  the  regions  of  Barranquilla  and  Car- 
tagena, the  latter  district  containing  the  largest  fields  of  mangrove 
swamps,  which  are  also  found  in  large  areas  along  the  delta  of  the 
Sinu  Kiver  to  the  southwest  of  Cartagena. 

The  divi-divi  (Caesalpinia  coriaricu  is  found  in  abundance  in  the 
region  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  to  the  east  and  south  of  Rio  Hacha, 
the  tree  growing  in  a  sandy  soil  mixed  with  clay,  in  a  semiarid  region. 
The  pods  that  contain  the  tanning  extract  are  gathered  by  the  natives 
and  exported  from  the  port  of  Rio  Hacha.  It  is  one  of  the  principal 
exports  of  this  part  of  the  country.  For  particulars  of  divi-divi 
and  all  other  tanning  materials  of  Colombia,  the  reader  may  be 
referred  to  Special  Agents  Series  No.  165,  "Tanning  Materials  of 
Latin  America,"  pa^es  16-29. 

During  the  war  divi-divi  reached  a  price  of  $75  per  ton.  A  firm 
in  Barranquilla  contracted  with  New  York  importers  to  deliver 
divi-divi  for  $30  per  ton  but  failed  to  make  such  delivery.  Ocean 
freights  on  divi-divi,  which  is  usually  handled  by  small  sailing  ves- 
sels, were  $8  per  ton  before  the  war  and  are  now  $24  per  ton  from 
Colombia  to  New  York.     Rio  Hacha  produces  6,000  tons  annually, 


,84        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

and  most  of  this  has  gone  to  the  trading  companies  at  Curasao  in 
small  schooners,  although  an  American  firm  specializing  in  the  im- 
portation of  tanning  materials  did  have  three  schooners  of  800  tons 
each  which  they  sent  to  Rio  Hacha  and  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela  for 
divi-divi  and  mangrove-bark  shipments,  taking  down  trade  goods  in 
exchange. 

The  stowage  of  divi-divi  packed  in  sacks  is  110  cubic  feet  to  the 
ton.  The  process  of  baling  it  for  shipment  was  a  failure,  and  the 
pods  must  be  packed  in  fine  bags  to  prevent  the  loss  of  the  fine 

f)owder  which  coarse  material  would  permit  to  sift  out  and  become 
ost  in  transit.  This  powder  lies  agamst  the  pods  but  not  in  them 
and,  when  dry,  is  dusted  off  easily. 

Before  the  war  the  Germans  practically  controlled  the  tanning- 
material  market  of  South  America,  and  American  tanners  and 
importers  were  forced  to  buy  from  Hamburg  and  reship  to  the  United 
States.  The  largest  depot  of  supply  of  divi-divi  is  at  Curacao,  or  at 
Rio  Hacha  in  Colombia,  where,  m  December,  1918,  there  was  500 
tons  available  for  immediate  exportation,  with  no  ships  to  carry  it. 
Imports  of  tanning  materials  from  Colombia  to  the  United  States 
are  shown  in  the  following  table : 


Tanning  materials. 

Fiscal  year  1916. 

Fiseal  y6ar  1917. 

Calendar  year 
1918. 

Calendar  year 
1919. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quan- 
tity. 

Value. 

Quan- 
tity. 

Value. 

Crude: 

Mangrove  bark tons. . 

790 

$18,220 

442 
170 

«9,169 

2,887 

37,445 

142,064 

3 

$75 

230 

$5,764 

4,182 
281,949 

117 
16,154 



410 

Extracts,   other   than   que^ 
bracho pounds. . 

3,221,955 

2,295,932 

260  fiS7 

Total 

304,351 

191,565 

16,346 

6,174 

The  value  of  exports  of  tanning  materials  from  Cartagena  to  the 
United  States  durmg  six  recent  years  is  shown  below  (in  United 
States  currency) : 


Tanning  materials. 

1914 

1915 

'  1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Divi-divi          

$2,600 
50,866 

$4,132 
125,146 

$16,414 
229,174 

$1,336 
19 

Tannic  extract 

$44,223 

$24,764 

Note.— The  quantity  of  tannic  extract  shipped  from  Cartagena  to  the  United  States  in  1917  was  733,751 
pounds,  and  in  1918,  375,881  poimds. 

A  summary  of  Colombian  Government  statistics  for  eight  years 
gives  the  following  totals  of  divi-divi  exports: 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 
[Kilo-2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar=S0.9733.) 


85 


Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Years. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

1906 

Kilos. 
3,531,113 
5,831,827 
4,688,046 
3,873,272 

Colombian 
dollars. 
124,389 
186,118 
125,766 
100,588 

1910 

Kilos. 
3,998,446 
1,375,958 
4,688,685 
1,615,385 

Colombian 
dollars. 
91,369 

1907 

1915 

48,047 

1908 

1916 

134, 826 

1909 

1917 

52, 474 

KoTE. — These  figures  show  the  total  export  returns  from  all  shipping  ports  of  Colombia  and  include  the 
amounts  exported  from  Rio  Hacha,  the  principal  shipping  point  for  this  product,  whence  exports  go  to 
Curacao,  Dutch  West  Indies. 

CHICLE. 

Although  several  species  of  the  "zapote"  tree  are  found  in  all 
tropical  regions  of  Colombia,  in  only  two  regions  of  the  country  has 
the  industry  of  the  collection  and  exportation  of  chicle  gum  become 
of  any  great  importance — namely,  the  Magdalena  River  Valley  and 
the  Pacific  coast.  In  the  river  valley  the  region  exploited  is  that  of 
the  Department  of  Santander,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Magdalena, 
along  the  Sogamoso  River.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  principal  terri- 
tory is  the  Atrato  River  region  above  and  below  the  town  oi  Quibdo, 
though  exports  of  ''lirio"  gum  are  beginning  to  be  made  from  the 
Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura,  which  receives  chicle  and  lirio  gum 
from  the  valley  of  the  San  Juan  River,  south  of  the  Quibdo  district — 
the  latter  region  exporting  via  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  down  the  Atrato 
River  and  via  Cartagena. 

Prior  to  1917  the  existence  of  the  zapote  tree  in  Colombia  was  little 
known,  exports  of  chicle  gum  to  the  United  States  in  1916  amounting 
to  only  5,218  pounds,  valued  at  $1,784,  and  even  less  in  1917,  when 
2,010  pounds,  valued  at  $515)  were  exported  to  the  United  States,  the 
only  purchaser  of  chicle  from  Colombia. 

The  disturbed  condition  of  Mexico  attracted  attention  to  Colombia, 
and  an  inspection  of  the  Colombian  forests  was  made  by  a  Mexican 
chicle  expert,  who  discovered  large  areas  containing  this  valuable  tree 
but  who  was  obliged  to  show  the  natives  how  to  select  the  trees  for 
tapping  and  how  to  tap  the  trees,  collect  the  gum,  refine  it,  and  pack 
it  for  export.  Dealers  at  the  principal  seaports,  Cartagena  and  Bar- 
ranquilla,  were  encouraged  to  trade  for  chicle  with  the  natives  of  the 
interior,  and  owners  of  large  tracts  of  virgin  forest  lands  were  urged 
to  organize  exploitation  of  their  lands.  During  the  war  prices  were 
high,  averaging  70  cents  per  pound  and  stimulating  interest  in  this 
product  for  export,  but  early  in  1919  prices  paid  in  New  York  by 
impyorters  dropped  to  as  low  as  42  cents;  traders  were  not  pushing  the 
business  under  these  conditions  and  were  holding  quantities  on  hand 
for  better  market  conditions. 

It  is  reported  that  the  zapote  tree  is  very  abundant  in  the  tropical 
forests  of  Santander  and  also  throughout  the  entire  Atrato  and  San 
Juan  River  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast,  with  additional  reports  of 
extensive  areas  in  Narino  in  the  region  of  the  Patia  River  Valley, 
from  which  small  quantities  have  recently  been  exported  through 
Tumaco.  The  trees,  however,  do  not  occur  in  dense  groves  but  are 
scattered  throughout  the  forests,  and  trails  have  to  be  cut  through 
the  jungle,  camps  established,  and  natives  induced  to  engage  in  the 
work.     As  a  rule,  labor  will  work  at  gathering  this  gum  only  during 


86        COLOMBJA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

certain  seasons  of  the  year — that  is,  during  the  dry  season  and  when 
not  engaged  in  planting  com,  etc.,  on  a  small  scale  along  the  larger 
rivers.  The  Ncctocs  of  the  Atrato  region  go  into  the  forests  for 
chicle,  lirio,  and  oalata  gums  when  not  engaged  in  placer  mining  for 
gold  and  platinum,  and  the  industry  is  carried  on  in  a  very  irregular 
manner,  trading  being  through  stores  in  Quibdo,  Istmina,  or  Negria. 
These  stores  are  branches  of  importers  and  exporters  of  Cartagena 
or  Buenaventura,  the  trade  being  carried  on  by  exchange,  principally 
of  cheap  cotton  textiles. 

It  has  been  found  very  difficult  to  get  the  natives  to  deliver  the 
unadulterated  chicle  gum  or  to  adopt  better  methods  of  cleaning. 
Very  often  the  gum  is  mixed  with  other  more  easily  procured  gums, 
and  the  natives  seem  to  be  experts  at  this  sort  of  adulteration  for 
their  own  gain.  Methods  of  cleaning  consist  merely  of  boiling  the  sap 
and  washing  it  in  water  while  still  warm,  when  tne  mass  is  pressed 
into  wooden  molds  to  form  "bricks"  for  export.  As  a  rule  tne  gum 
is  of  a  dark  brown  color,  but  this  depends  upon  the  length  of  time 
of  boiling  and  the  amount  of  washing  it  has  received.  Very  often 
shipments  to  the  coast  from  the  interior  have  to  be  reboiled  and 
cleaned  before  being  exported.  Underboiling  causes  the  gum  to  be 
quite  white  but  brittle,  while  overboiling  gives  it  a  very  dark  color 
and  bad  appearance.  The  chicle  of  Colombia  is  inferior  to  that  of 
Mexico  ana  commands  a  lower  price. 

The  purest  and  best  chicle  oi^  Colombia  comes  from  the  Sogamoso 
region  m  Santander,  moving  down  the  Magdalena  River  from  Puerto 
Wilches  by  river  steamer  and  being  exported  to  the  United  States 
via  Barranquilla.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  are  a  great  number  of 
"lirio"  trees  (a  species  of  the  "zapote"),  these  being  much  more 
plentiful  in  this  region  than  the  true  chicle-gum  tree.  Lirio  gum  is 
gathered  in  the  same  manner  and  sold  under  two  local  names — 

lirio"  gum  when  exported  through  Cartagena  and  ''cauchillo"  gum 
when  exported  through  Buenaventura  from  the  San  Juan  region 
south  of  the  divide  between  the  Atrato  and  the  San  Juan  Rivers. 
Lirio  gum  looks  very  much  like  real  chicle  and  is  used  as  a  substitute 
for  chicle  and  rubber.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  balata  gum  (rubber) 
is  often  mixed  with  lirio  gum,  the  balata  being  much  more  plentiful. 
Shipments  ready  for  export  show  no  uniformity  in  character. 
"Cauchillo"  gum  should  not  be  confused  with  some  kinds  of  rubber 
which  are  also  called  "cauchillo"  in  the  southeastern  part  of  Colom- 
bia. "Cauchillo"  is  also  the  name  given  to  lirio  gum  handled  at 
Buenaventura. 

During  1918,  86,585  pounds  of  chicle  and  lirio  gum,  valued  at 
$41,450,  were  shipped  from  the  port  of  Cartagena  to  the  United 
States.  .Exports  to  this  country  from  Cartagena  during  1919 
amounted  to  84,022  pounds,  valued  at  $37,445. 

From  Barranquilla  the  shipments  of  cauchillo  (chicle)  to  the 
United  States  were:  1918,  226,872  pounds,  valued  at  $65,233;  1919, 
465,043  pounds,  valued  at  $136,554. 

The  total  imports  of  chicle  and  lirio  gum  from  Colombia  by  the 
United  States  m  1918  were  690,496  pounds,  valued  at  $278,654, 
while  in  1919  the  quantity  was  1,777,747  pounds  and  the  value 
$570,864. 

It  is  doubtful  whether  production  of  chicle  by  Colombia  will  be 
much  increased  in  the  future.     The  trees  exist  in  great  numbers  but 


FOEEST  PRODUCTS.  S7 

are  scattered  through  the  jungles  in  the  most  inaccessible  regions, 
and  the  labor  situation,  as  explained,  is  also  difficult  unless  very 
high  prices  can  be  obtained  for  this  forest  product. 

RUBBER. 

Various  kinds  of  rubber  trees  are  found  in  Colombia  over  a  wide 
range  of  territory  and  there  have  been  numerous  efforts,  on  a  more 
or  less  limited  scale,  to  cultivate  the  better  grades  of  rubber  trees, 
these  plantations  being  located  near  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River, 
in  the  Department  of  Santander  in  the  interior,  and  on  the  west  coast 
inland  from  the  southern  port  of  Tumaco.  At  this  last-mentioned 
point,  an  English  rubber  planter  has  been  interested  in  developing 
what  are  regarded  as  ideal  tracts  of  land.  The  chief  difficulty  in  the 
development  of  rubber  plantations  has  been  the  lack  of  dependable 
labor  in  the  tropical  districts  suited  to  rubber-tree  cultivation;  and 
the  low  prices  obtaining  during  recent  years,  based  on  the  supply 
from  Brazil,  have  been  discouraging  to  native  planters,  who  have 
always  had  many  other  more  attractive  means  of  investing  surplus 
capiital.  A  rubber  plantation  on  the  Atrato  River,  owned  by  a 
wealthy  and  progressive  Syrian  merchant  of  Cartagena,  contains 
160,000  trees,  but  has  been  allowed  to  remain  idle  because  of  l"ow 
prices.  This  is  the  largest  rubber  plantation  in  Colombia.  In  the 
region  of  the  Magdalena  Valley^  in  Santander  there  are  some  10,000 
rubber  trees  under  cultivation  by  private  interests  which  are 
endeavoring,  slowly,  to  develop  the  industry  in  that  region. 

Undoubtedly,  the  largest  areas  of  rubber  trees  exist  to  the  south 
in  the  region  of  the  Amazon  watershed,  alon^  the  headwaters  of  the 
Putumayo  and  Caqueta  Rivers.  Colombians  have  established  rubber 
trading  posts  at  various  points  on  these  rivers,  but  this  territory 
has  been  invaded  by  the  rubber  traders  from  Iquitos.in  Peru.  Rub- 
ber gathered  in  this  district  moves  out  through  Iquitos  in  Peru,  as 
that  is  the  shortest  and  easiest  route.  The  nearest  Colombian  town 
of  any  importance  is  Pasto,  itself  inaccessible  from  the  sea.  The 
rubber  going  through  Iquitos  is  not  counted  in  Colombian  export 
returns  as  originating  in  Colombia. 

A  census  taken  in  1909  in  the  Choco  Territory  showed  a  total  of 
1,197,728  rubber  trees  planted  or  claimed  in  ownership  in  the  Rio 
Atrato  district,  possibly  the  largest  source  of  rubber  in  the  country 
outside  of  the  "selvas     of  the  Amazon  watershed. 

Some  rubber  is  brought  into  Neiva,  the  capital  of  Huila,  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Magdalena  River,  but  this  rubber  is  gathered  to  the 
southeast  over  the  Eastern  Cordillera  on  the  Amazon  watershed. 
This  rubber  finds  its  way  down  the  Magdalena  to  Barranquilla  or 
Cartagena  for  export.  To  the  east,  on  the  Apaporis  and  Vaupes 
Rivers,  Colombians  have  established  themselves  more  firmly  in  the 
rubber  trade  and  have  brought  under  their  control  several  tribes  of 
robust  Indians.  Large  areas  of  the  forests  have  been  opened  for 
rubber  gathering,  of  both  the  balata  and  the  Para  species,  but  the 
trade  is  all  down  the  Rio  Negro  to  Manaos  on  the  Amazon.  The 
annual  production  of  rubber  from  this  region  is  said  to  be  in  the 
neighborhood  of  125,000  pounds. 

For  a  complete  description  of  the  llanos  and  selvas  of  Colombia 
and  of  the  rubber  country  to  the  south  along  the  Caqueta,  Negro,  and 


88 


COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAIi    HANDBOOK. 


Putiimayo  Rivers,  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  "Colombia,"  by 
Phanor  J.  Eder. 

The  rubber  industr^^  in  Colombia  suffers  from  lack  of  labor  and 
transportation,  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  present  rate  of  export 
of  this  product  will  be  greatly  increased  unless  extraordinarily  high 
prices  for  rubber  in  the  United  States  or  Europe  attract  renewed 
interest  in  planting  rubber  trees  and  increased  activity  in  the  wild 
forests  of  the  Amazon  watershed. 

Imports  of  rubber  from  Colombia  into  the  United  States  have  bean 
as  follows: 


Kinds. 

Fiscal  year  1910. 

Fiscal  year  1917. 

Calendar  year  1918. 

Calendar  year 
1919. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Ponnds. 

Value. 

Ponnds. 

Value. 

Balata 

108,727 

090 

750, 120 

$39,206 

190 

327,023 

540,616 

$243, 322 

316, 520 

$136,058 

197, 113 

$89,425 

(lutta-percha 

India  rubber 

1, 317, 509 

492, 432 
1, 521 

884,792       356,226 

699,790 

^273, 975 

Iudia-r;ibl)er  substitutes. . 

i 

Rubber  ranks  eighth  as  a  Colombian  export,  being  just  ahead  of 
tobacco.  The  rubber  exported  from  Colombia  in  1917,  not  counting 
that  which  moved  out  of  the  country  via  the  Amazon  River  and 
Iquitos  in  Peru,  was  valued  at  723,043  Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar  = 
$0.9733  United  States  currency),  this  including  all  kinds,  from  all 
ports. 

The  largest  rubber-producing  area  in  Colombia  (except  the 
"selvas"  region)  is  the  territory  of  the  Choco  Intendency,  in  the 
Atrato  River  region,  where  more  attention  has  been  given  to  rubber 
cultivation  and  trading.  This  prodtict  is  handled  through  Carta- 
gena, on  the  Caribbean  coast. 

As  has  been  said,  the  rubber-gathering  industry  is  the  principal 
one  in  the  great,  wild,  little-known  southern  territory,  the  rubber 
hunters  and  traders  from  Iquitos  and  Manaos  being  the  most  active 
agents  in  this  territory.  On  the  banks  of  the  Apaporis  and  Ne^ro 
Rivers,  Colombians  have  also  organized  rubber  gatnering  and  trading 
settlements.  Throughout  the  rest  of  the  countrv,  except  in  the  cases 
of  the  few  plantations,  rubber  trading  is  carried  on  by  merchants  of 
the  coast  who  have  branches  or  agents  established  in  places  like 
Quibdo,  in  the  Choco  Intendency;  Barbacoas,  inland  from  Tumaco; 
and  Negria,  on  the  San  Juan  River,  in  the  district  north  of  Buena- 
ventura. These  branch  stores  exchancre  trade  goods  (principally 
cheap  cotton  textiles  and  the  like)  for  rubber  brought  in  by  tne  natives, 
Indians  as  well  as  Negroes,  who  go  into  the  forests  during  the  dry 
season  and  tap  the  trees,  the  various  families  or  groups  having  their 
mutually  defined  forest  areas  which  they  keep  open  and  accessible 
by  cutting  trails  with  machetes.  This  trade  is  especially  well  organ- 
ized and  cared  for  in  the  Atrato  River  region,  where  the  Syrian  firms 
of  Cartagena  have  several  important  branches,  with  ramifications 
throughout  the  small  Negro  villages  of  the  river  country.  These 
store  branches  also  deal  in  platinum,  gold,  lirio  gum,  chicle,  aigrette 
feathers,  cedar  and  mahogony,  and  other  products  such  as  sarsapa- 
rilla,  ipecac,  etc. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS.  89 

The  main  stores  in  Cartagena  are  always  in  touch  with  the  New 
York  market  through  their  agents,  usually  export  commission  houses, 
and  they  keep  their  branches  well  informed  of  price  fluctuations, 
trading  then  being  based  upon  these  prices,  with  a  very  careful  esti- 
mate of  freight  costs,  etc.  The  main  difficulty  has  been  in  guarding 
against  adulteration  of  the  gum  by  the  native  gatherers,  who  are 
well  acquainted  with  the  plant  life  of  the  forests  and  are  adept  in 
mixing  m  other  gums  that  are  more  easily  gathered  than  the  valuable 
rubber  and  that  can  not  be  detected  except  by  expert  test  and  exam- 
ination. The  tales  of  loss  suffered  by  inexperienced  rubber  traders 
at  Cartagena  alone  would  fill  many  chapters,  and  this  is  shown  to  be 
a  business,  in  which  only  the  initiated  can  engage  without  the  prospect 
of  loss. 

The  rubber  production  of  the  Choco  territory  was  curtailed  during 
thQ  war  years  oy  the  high  prices  that  were  bemg  paid  for  platinum, 
which  attracted  many  more  workers  to  the  placer  rivers  and  streams 
of  the  district. 

Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  appear  to  be  ideal  for  rubber  plant- 
ing inland  from  the  Pacific  port  of  Tumaco,  where  there  is  river- 
steamer  transportation  to  the  seaport  and  wide  areas  of  suitable  land 
that  can  be  secured  for  a  very  low  price.  Here  the  climate  is  not 
quite  so  bad  as  in  the  Choco  region.  The  difficulties  are  the  usual 
ones — principally  lack  of  sufficient  and  reliable  labor.  The  average 
Negro  or  mulatto  in  this  region  much  prefers  to  work  for  himself; 
he  erects  a  tiny  thatched  hut  along  some  river,  puts  in  a  few  plan- 
tains and  a  few  stalks  of  sugar  cane,  and  then,  with  his  dugout  canoe 
and  with  fish  and  the  fruits  of  the  forest  for  the  taking,  he  is  very 
independent  of  outside  employment  of  any  kind.  When  money  or 
trade  products  are  needed  with  which  to  secure  cloth,  a  machete,  or 
other  necessities  of  domestic  or  foreign  manufacture,  he  goes  into  the 
forest  and  gathers  his  own  rubber  or  tagua  nuts  in  a  few  days,  trades 
them  for  what  he  wants,  and  is  again  at  leisure  for  a  long  period. 

TAGUA  (VEGETABLE  IVORY). 

The  tagua,  or  so-called  ivory,  nut  is  the  seed  of  a  species  of 
palm  {Phyteliphas  macrocarpa,  Retp.)  which  grows  wild  in  Peru,  Ecua- 
dor, the  western  part  of  Colombia,  and  the  interior  of  Brazil.  The 
ivory  nut  when  dried  and  cut  has  the  appearance  of  ivory  and  can 
be  sawn,  carved,  polished,  and  dyed  with  ease,  being  used  exten- 
sively in  the  manufacture  of  buttons,  drawer  knobs,  toys,  and  fancy 
goods,  taking  the  place  of  bone  and  ivory. 

The  tagua  palm  is  of  "social  habit"  and  is  found  in  groves  over 
considerable  areas,  generally  in  wet  and  heavy  clay  lands.  The  palm 
is  from  10  to  20  feet  in  height  and  begins  to  bear  at  the  age  of  6  years. 
Only  the  female  plants  bear  fruit,  about  50  per  cent  of  the  plants 
being  female.  The  nuts  are  borne  in  pods,  or  heads,  which  weigh 
about  20  pounds,  are  the  size  of  a  man  s  head,  and  have  from  six  to 
nine  nuts  each.  The  nuts  are  the  size  of  a  small  potato,  oval  in  shape, 
fine  grained,  of  hard,  white  composition,  and  approach  real  ivory  in 
all  their  characteristics. 

The  Colombian  Government  grants  free  exploitation  of  the  tagua 
groves  to  the  people  of  the  country  but  has  placed  on  the  nuts  a  3  per 
cent  ad  valorem  export  duty,  which  is  collected  at  the  port  of  export. 


90         COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK, 

Tagua  nuts  are  gathered  in  many  regions  of  Colombia,  but  the 
heavy  and  bulky  nature  of  the  product  and  its  low  price  in  relation 
to  weight  and  volume  confine  the  industry  of  gathering  the  nuts  to 
the  re|]jions  adjacent  to  the  coasts  or  navigable  rivers  through  which 
there  is  easy  and  cheap  access  to  the  market  points,  Tagua  is  gath- 
ered all  along  the  Magdalena  River  in  Colombia  as  far  up  as  Puerto 
Berrio,  the  principal  river  shipping  point  being  Carare,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Carare  River  with  the  Magdalena,  just  below  Puerto 
Berrio  and  about  460  miles  from  Barranquilla.  In  this  district  of 
the  Department  of  Santander  there  seem  to  be  large  natural  groves 
of  the  tagua  palm — -greater  than  in  other  accessible  places  along  the 
river  as  yet  available.     Gathering  tagua  nuts  is  the  principal  occu- 

Eation  01  the  natives  of  this  district.  Not  much  tagua  is  handled 
y  the  river  steamers,  however,  the  freight  rates  being  too  high. 
The  chief  means  of  transporting  the  nuts  down  to  the  coast  is  by 
crude  native  rafts  of  lumoer  and  bamboo,  which  are  sold  with  the 
cargo  of  nuts  at  Barranquilla  after  floating  down  the  riyer. 

There  are  great  quantities  of  these  palms  along  the  coast  to  the 
north  of  Buenaventura,  and  many  small  traders  are  engaged  in  gath- 
ering the  nuts  and  transporting  them  to  Buenaventura  and  Panama 
for  marketing,  using  small  sloops  and  schooners  for  this  trade.  The 
nuts  are  brought  down  to  the  coast  in  canoes  by  the  negroes  inhab- 
iting this  region,  who  receive  trade  goods  in  exchange.  The  same 
condition  applies  along  the  coast  to  tne  south,  as  the  tagua  palm  is 
very  abundant  as  far  down  as  Ecuador  and  Peru,  Ecuador  exporting 
the  largest  amount  of  any  country  in  South  America.  Considerable 
amounts  of  tagua  nuts  are  also  snipped  from  Cartagena,  coming  in 
from  the  Atrato  River  and  coast  regions  southwest  of  that  port. 
Barranquilla  exports  the  nuts  that  come  down  the  river  from  the 
Magdalena  Valley  country. 

The  gathering  of  the  nuts  presents  no  great  difficulties  beyond 
that  of  transportation.  All  that  is  required  is  to  pick  the  nuts  up 
from  the  ground  alter  they  have  been  dropped  from  the  ripe  pods. 
Trading  is  carried  on  by  the  merchants  of  the  coast  cities,  who  buy 
the  cargoes  of  tagua  nuts  sent  in  by  traders  of  the  interior,  thus 
controUmg  the  market.  At  the  present  time  these  merchants  are 
in  turn  dependent  upon  the  market  in  the  United  States  for  their 
sales  of  the  ivory  nuts,  although  before  the  war  Great  Britain  and 
Germany  took  large  amounts,  Germany  being  the  largest  consumer. 
The  cutting  off  of  the  German  market  during  the  war  so  affected 
prices  that  great  quantities  were  stored  at  shipping  points,  princi- 
pally in  Ecuador,  to  await  more  favorable  conditions.  Merchants 
dealing  in  tagua  nuts  were  offering  such  low  prices  that  the  natives 
would  not  gather  the  nuts  at  all. 

Button  making  is,  of  course,  the  principal  use  to  which  the  vege- 
table ivory  is  put,  though  it  has  many  otner  uses,  such  as  for  chess 
men,  umbrella  handles,  poker  chips,  etc.,  and  is  worked  up  into  a 
great  variety  of  ornaments  and  fancy  goods  of  many  kinas.  The 
process  of  ivory  button  manufacture  is  varied,  complicated,  and 
requires  many  different  kinds  of  machinery.  The  West  Indies, 
Central  and  South  America  use  annually  about  $2,300,000  worth  of 
buttons  and  manufacture  no  buttons  of  any  kind  themselves,  accord- 
ing to  a  report  compiled  by  the  Pan  American  Union  (October,  1917). 
The  Button  Manufacturers  Corporation,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  has  estab- 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  206. 


FIG.  5.— STREET  SCENE,  BARRANQUI  LLA. 


FIG.  6.— RIVER  BOATS  AND   DUGOUTS  AT  WATER   FRONT,   BARRANQUILLA. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


91 


lished  a  button  factory  at  Panama  City  (1917)  to  make  buttons 
from  vegetable  ivory;  this  plant  is  capable  of  working  up  100  tons 
of  raw  material  per  month.  It  is  planned  to  increase  this  capacity 
to  6,000  tons  per  year.  The  nuts  used  come  from  Ecuador,  Colombia, 
and  Panama  and  must  be  dried  for  three  weeks  before  being  cut 
into  button  slabs.     Only  native  labor  is  employed. 

Nuts  shipped  from  Cartagena  are  gathered  in  the  Sinu  and  Atrato 
River  districts  and  brought  into  Cartagena  in  barkatoons.  Usually 
the  lots  are  mixed  and  it  is  necessary  to  dry  and  sort  the  nuts,  and 
sometimes  shell  them,  before  they  are  exported.  Naturally,  the 
well-dried,  sorted,  shelled  nuts  command  the  best  prices  in  foreign 
markets.  Little  care  is  used  in  gathering  the  nuts  and,  on  account 
of  the  mixed  lots  containing  a  high  percentage  of  defectives,  "Carta- 
gena tagua,"  as  it  is  known,  does  not  equal  the  Ecuadorian  nut.  No 
attempt  has  been  made  to  cultivate  the  tagua  palm,  probably  because 
it  grows  in  profusion  in  the  districts  where  wild  rubber  is  found, 
i  In  normal  times  Germany  was  the  best  market  for  Cartagena 
ivory  nuts,  and  Italy  took  a  smaller  share,  but  required  high-grade 
nuts.  Cleaned  nuts  (shelled)  bring  as  high  as  $75  to  $90  per  ton 
at  times. 

As  has  been  said,  Ecuador  is  the  largest  producer  of  the  vegetable 
ivory  nut,  having,  in  1913,  shipped  nuts  to  the  value  of  $2,000,000. 
Colombia  exported  in  the  same  year  $900,000  worth,  or  11,600  metric 
tons,  giving  an  average  value  of  $77.57  per  metric  ton.  Prices  for 
Colombian  tagua  reached  the  high  level  of  $128  per  ton  in  Germany 
in  1914.  The  export  tax  of  3  per  cent  charged  on  nuts  gathered 
from  Government  lands  is  calculated  on  the  ruling  price  obtained  in 
the  market. 

Imports  to  the  United  States  of  tagua  from  Colombia  are  shown 
below: 


Years. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


Fiscal  year  1916. . . 
Fiscal  year  1917. . . 
Calendar  year  1918 
Calendar  year  1919 


11,119,019 
14,  423, 369 
10,  782,  517 
5, 534, 369 


U.  S. 

currency. 

$335,545 

494,806 

386,720 

254,828 


Colombian  Government  statistics  give  the  exports  of  tagua  from 
1906  to  1917,  inclusive,  as  follows: 


[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  doIIar= $0.9733.] 


Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

1906 

5,354,276 
7, 521, 239 
4, 419,  740 
8, 457,  530 
10, 096, 825 
10, 989, 605 

Colom- 
bian 
dollars. 
192,661 
262, 657 
178,  334 
468,796 
788,096 
739,420 

1912 

11, 598, 512 
11,650,762 
7, 120,  835 
7, 056, 048 
8,  555, 057 
5, 135,  241 

Colom- 
bian 

dollars. 
754,708 
819,422 
327,086 

1907 

1913 

1908... .- 

1914 

1909 

1915 

343,264 

1910 

1916 

451, 292 

1911 

1917.         .   .   . 

300,898 

92        COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

INDIGO. 

During  the  colonial  days  in  Colombia  the  country  produced  large 
quantities  of  indigo,  the  Spanish  colonists  having  large  plantations  of 
this  product  on  the  coast  near  Cartagena,  where  slaves  were  used  for 
labor.  With  the  attainment  of  independence  and  the  freeing  of  all 
slaves  the  industry  fell  into  a  decline  from  which  it  has  never  recov- 
ered, and  in  modern  times  the  invention  of  the  aniline  dyes  has 
affected  the  market  for  all  vegetable  dyes,  as  is  well  known.  How- 
ever, small  amounts  of  indigo  are  still  shipped  from  Colombia.  In 
1915,  $3,093  worth  was  shipped  to  the  United  States,  and  in  1916 
$3,298  worth,  principally  from  Cartagena. 

HARDWOODS  AND  CEDAR. 

For  detailed  information  concerning  the  timber  and  lumber  situa- 
tion the  reader  may  be  referred  to  "  Lumber  Markets  of  the  West  and 
North  Coasts  of  South  America,"  Special  Agents  Series  No.  117, 
pages  104-117.  This  contains  the  names,  prices,  uses,  etc.,  of  all 
native  hardwoods  of  merchantable  value,  figures  covering  imports  of 
foreign  lumber,  prices,  and  all  other  data. 

The  natural  wealth  of  the  forests  of  Colombia  is  very  great,  but  for 
the  most  part  they  are  inaccessible,  and  the  many  difficulties  of  trans- 
portation, the  lack  of  labor  supply,  and  the  tropical  climate  are 
serious  drawbacks.  In  the  past  the  Government  has  given  many 
concessions,  often  covering  enormous  tracts  of  land  and  with  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  exploiting  the  forests  therein,  but  these  con- 
cessions have  proved  failures,  the  hoped-for  development  of  roads 
and  new  industries  not  resulting  therefrom.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  valuable  hardwoods,  used  in  the  country  for  domestic  purposes, 
and  the  forests  contain  much  good  hardwood,  but  the  trees  are  very 
scattered.  They  do  not  occur  in  groves,  and  only  one  or  two  of  the 
same  species  may  be  found  on  an  acre,  or  possibly  on  a  square  mile — 
often  in  places  where  the  cost  of  transporting  to  market  is  much  too 
great. 

Very  little  timber  cutting  has  been  done.  There  are  a  few  saw- 
mills in  the  country  located  on  the  coast  or  on  navigable  rivers,  the 
principal  one  being  that  of  Abuchar  Hermanos  at  Sautata,  situated 
30  miles  up  the  Atrato  River  from  its  mouth  and  6  miles  from  the 
sea  in  an  air  line.  This  mill  has  a  capacity  of  15,000  board  feet  of 
cedar  daily,  and  plans  call  for  the  planting  of  10,000  young  cedar 
trees  annually  to  supplement  the  supply  of  logs  brought  down  the 
river  by  the  natives  for  sale  at  the  mill.  Several  American  firms 
have  been  interested  in  the  development  of  the  lumber  industry  in 
Colombia,  principally  mahogany  and  cedar,  but  their  experience  has 
not  been  encouraging.  One  concern  spent  $11,000  in  reconnaissance 
work  in  the  Magdalena  Valley,  but  reported  the  undertaking  as 
hazardous  under  any  scale  of  operation.  The  main  difficulty  is  the 
small  number  of  trees  of  merchantable  type  on  a  given  accessible 
area.  To  sum  up  the  situation,  the  lumber  industry  of  Colombia 
shows  retrogression  instead  of  growth;  the  demands  oi  the  accessible 
local  markets  are  too  small  and  the  delivery  costs  too  high  to  permit 
operations  on  any  large  scale. 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


93 


Colombian  "mahogany"  is  in  demand  in  Europe  and  in  the  United 
States,  but  it  is  not  the  true  mahogany,  though  considered  the  best 
imitation  on  the  market  to-day.  True  mahogany  is  said  to  grow  in 
Colombia,  but  not  in  commercial  quantities.  The  ordinary  Colombian 
species  is  Cariniana  pyriformis,  true  mahogany  being  technically 
known  as  Swietenia  mahogoni.  Botanically  the  two  trees  are  unlike, 
though  the  woods  are  very  similar  in  grain  and  color. ^ 

An  American  company  erected  a  sawmill  at  the  Pacific  ^ort  of 

Guapi  (in  the  Department  of  Cauca),  south  of  Buenaventura,  in  1916, 

being  interested  principally  in  the  cedar  thought  to  be  abundant  in 

■  this  region,  but  tne  plant  was  closed  soon  after  lumbering  operations 

were  started,  and  it  is  not  in  operation  at  the  present  time. 

There  are  reports  of  considerable  cedar  and  ''mahogany"  to  be 
found  at  points  along  the  coast  north  of  Buenaventura  and  north  of 
the  San  Juan  River  toward  the  boundary  with  Panama,  but,  so  far  as 
is  known,  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  lo^  in  this  region. 

The  following  are  the  estimated  annual  amounts  of  lumber  im- 
ported from  the  United  States  into  Colombia,  based  on  normal 
demand : 


Kinds. 

Barran- 
qiiilla. 

Cartagena. 

Santa 
Marta. 

Medellin. 

Bogota. 

Total. 

Southern  yellow  pine 

Feet. 
1,000,000 

120.000 
2,500,000 

100,000 

Feet. 

600,000 

40,000 

1,800,000 

35,000 

Fed. 
60,000 
20,000 
300,000 
20,000 

Feet.  ■ 

Feel. 

Feet. 

1,660,000 

180,000 

10,960,000 

155, 000 

American  white  pine 

Native  hardwoods 

3,400,000 

2,960,000 

other  American  woods 

Total 

3,720,000 

2, 475, 000 

400,000 

3,400,000 

2,960,000 

12,955,000 

Exports  of  cedar  and  "mahogany"  lumber  from  the  port  of  Carta- 
gena to  the  United  States  during  1917  amounted  to  1,277,249  feet, 
valued  at  $63,863;  during  1918  to  1,200,639  feet,  valued  at  $71,887; 
and  during  1919  to  603,900  feet,  valued  at  $49,339.  The  amounts 
mentioned  were  composed  principally  of  cedar  which  came  from  the 
Sinu  River  district  and  from  the  Atrato  River,  the  lumber  from 
the  latter  region  being  brought  in  to  Cartagena  by  barges  and  tugs 
from  the  sawmill  at  Sautata,  30  miles  above  the  mouth  of  this  river, 
during  the  season  of  high  water  and  going  chiefly  to  Porto  Rico  for 
cigar  boxes. 

Colombian  Government  statistics  show  exports  of  all  woods  from 
1906  to  1917,  as  follows: 

[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

1906 

4,276,038 
6,342,538 
2,738,458 
5,558,957 
6, 197, 184 
5,394,742 

Coloiribian 
dollars. 
92,331 
117,381 
49,565 
101,290 
124,109 
123,685 

1912 

686,768 
347,839 
2,654,702 
2,360,114 
2,204,464 
3,597,607 

Colombian 
dollars. 
15  368 

1907 

1913 

41,601 

1908 

1914 

49,398 
46,892 

1909 

1915 

1910 

1916 

46  740 

1911 

1917 

74,723 

1  See  FOTest  Service  Circular  185  (Washington,  1911). 


94 


COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


There  are  no  detailed  statistics  that  would  show  the  measurement 
of  this  wood  or  the  kinds  into  which  the  above  quantities  are  divided. 
The  principal  kinds  were  cedar  and  Colombian  "mahogany." 

United  States  customhouse  returns  show  the  following  imports  of 
woods  from  Colombia : 


Kinds. 

Fiscal  year  1916. 

Fiscal  year  1917. 

Calendar  year  1918. 

Calendar  year  1919. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Quantity. 

Value. 

Cabinet  woods,  unmanu- 
factured: 
Cedar 

lyOOOfeet. 

25 

1,444 

$1,250 
90,000 

l,000feet. 
847 
413 

$49, 158 

30,686 

70 

1,520 

l,000feet. 
993 
318 

S8i,064 

31,664 

51 

l,000feet. 
450 
368 

$32,322 
29  624 

Another 

Lumber,  sawed 

38 

There  is  a  small  movement  of  hardwood  and  cedar  logs  from 
Tumaco  and  Buenaventura  for  transshipment  at  Colon  to  the  United 
States,  consisting  principally  of  "mahogany"  and  "guayacan" 
(lignum- vitae) ..  These  shipments  are  handled  economically  as  deck 
loads  on  the  two  small  steamers  running  between  the  Canal  and  the 
two  ports  mentioned. 

GOVERNMENT  REVENUE  FROM  FORESTS— EXPORT  STATISTICS. 

The  Colombian  Government  receives  a  small  annual  revenue  from 
forest  products,  such  as  the  export  tax  on  tagua  at  3  per  cent  ad 
valorem.  From  March  1,  1918,  to  February  28,  1919,  tnis  revenue 
amounted  to  16,721  Colombian  dollars.  The  fiscal  year  ended  Febru- 
ary 28,  1918,  produced  24,526  dollars. 

Colombian  Government  statistics  for  1916,  under  the  general 
heading  of  "Vegetable  products,"  give  the  following  exports  of  forest 
products : 


[Kilo-2.2046  pounds;  Cdombian  dollar-=t0.9733.] 


Kinds. 


KUos. 

Value. 

Colombian 

dollars. 

3,070 

7,326 

460 

80 

5,322 

2,823 

49,228 

22,076 

459,883 

3.56,527 

124,011 

95,210 

10,528 

8,947 

698,2fi5 

36,185 

237 

680 

4,688,685 

134,826 

1,261,531 

108,039 

1.890 

691 

Kinds. 


Kiloe.         Value 


Indigo 

Aloes 

Balsam  of  copaiba 
Balsam  of  Tolu... 

Rubber 

Rubber,  balata... 

NIsi)ero  gimi 

Coconuts 

Canimeoil 

Divi-divi 

Tannic  extracts.., 
Copal  gum 


Mate  tea 

Manplebark 

Woods 

Brazil  dyewood 

Dvewood,  quebracho 
M'oods: 

Mora 

Lignum-vitae 

Quinine  baric 

Ipecac 

Sarsaparilla 

Tagua  nuts 


780,397 

1,873,047 

142,000 

70,000 

111,811 

7,500 

860 

29,717 

5,379 

8,55.5,057 


Colombian 

dnllari. 

102 

9,743 

41,639 

2,440 

1,100 

1,498 

60 

140 

90,611 

13, 767 

452,292 


FOREST  PRODUCTS. 


95   . 


The  Government  returns  for  exports  of  forest  products  during 
1918  are  as  follows: 


Kinds. 


Indigo 

Balsam  of  Tolu 

Balsam  of  Copaiba . . . 

Rubber 

Rubber,  balata 

Canime  oil 

Coconuts 

Divi-divi 

Chicle  gum 

Dyewoods 

Manufactured  lumber 
Cedar  logs 


Kilos. 


6.50 

48,070 

1,906 

228,586 

455, 449 

12, 914 

333,3.56 

3,237,621 

12, 377 

15, 608 

8,000 

66,100 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

1,600 

34,034 

1,412 

15.5, 521 

315, 823 

7,188 

10,517 

123,636 

2,743 

339 

260 

3,6.52 


Kinds. 


Mangle  bark , , 

Mahogany  and  cedar  wood 

other  woods , 

Quinine  bark 

SarsapariUa 

Ipecac 

Algarroba  resin 

Sande 

Cagua 

Coconut  oil 

Corozo  oil 

Castor  oil 


ICilos. 


Value. 


81, 120 

2,402,000 

115,620 

2,925 

22,301 

201 

454 

39,854 

6,352,311 

16,546 

36,200 

1,695 


Cdomibian 

dollars. 

2,843 

73,995 

3,019 

960 

64,856 

321 

lOU 

35,980 

387,202 

2,320 

10,503 

1,780 


MINING. 
INTRODUCTION. 

During  colonial  times  gold  mining  was  the  principal  source  of 
wealth  and  the  main  industry  of  the  country,  Colombia  at  that  time 
being  the  chief  gold-producing  country  of  all  the  Spanish  colonics  in 
the  New  Worid,  and  second  only  to  Peru  and  Mexico  in  all  mineral 
production.  It  is  estimated  that,  from  the  time  of  the  conquest 
(1537)  to  1882,  a  total  of  876,774  kilos  of  gold  (kilo  =  2.2046  pounds) 
were  produced  by  Colombia,  valued  at  $582,704,000,  with  an  addi- 
tional $47,000,000  worth  of  silver.  Other  estimates  made  in  1875 
place  the  grand  total  of  the  production  of  gold  alone  as  high  as 
$818,454,000,  with  an  additional  6  to  10  per  cent  for  silver. 

Mining  is  still  the  principal  industry  of  two  great  sections  of  the 
country,  and  it  is  thought  bv  many  that  the  great  potential  mineral 
resources  of  the  country  will  ultimately  prove  of  greater  value  than 
the  agricultural,  commercial,  or  industrial  possibilities  and  will  at- 
tract the  greater  share  of  foreign  capital.  The  past  history  of  mining 
in  Colombia  and  the  observations  of  modern  investigators  in  the 
mineral  field  more  than  justify  this  interest.  In  three  products  alone 
Colombia  possesses  enormous  resources — platinum,  petroleum,  and 
coal.  Colombia  is  the  chief  source  of  platinum  now  that  the  fields 
in  Russia  are  not  being  worked  to  capacity.  Petroleum  is  a  recent 
development,  which  promises  a  production  of  very  high-grade  crude 
oil  in  tne  near  future.  Coal  is  important  on  account  of  the  proximity 
of  the  deposits,  in  several  cases,  to  the  Panama  Canal,  where  coal 
is  needed  as  fuel  for  the  shipping  that  uses  the  Canal. 

Iron  deposits  are  found  in  the  region  of  several  of  the  coal  deposits, 
but  far  removed  from  easy  transportation  to  the  sea.  There  are 
also  many  indications  of  copper,  both  to  the  east  and  to  the  west. 
Tin,  quicksilver,  lead,  nickel,  and  other  minerals  are  also  found. 
There  are  great  banks  of  diatamaceous  earth,  cement  materials, 
asbestos,  etc.  In  the  Upper  Magdalena  Valley  there  are  large 
asphalt  deposits. 

Two  iron  deposits  have  been  worked,  but  on  a  very  small  scale. 
The  less  valuaole  metals  have  not  been  exploited  on  account  of  the 
difficulties  presented  by  the  topography  and  climate  of  the  country 
and  the  general  lack  of  easy  and  cheap  means  of  transportation. 
The  cost  of  importation  and  erection  of  modem  mining  machinery 
and  equipment  is  very  high  because  of  the  generally  broken  nature  of 
the  country,  and  only  hign-grade  deposits  can  be  worked  with  a  profit 
under  present  conditions. 

Before  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California  and  Australia,  Colombia 
furnished  the  chief  supply  of  gold  to  Europe.  The  official  figures 
of  the  Government  give  the  production  of  gold  from  1876  to  1892  as 
79;437  kilos,  valued  at  $52,792,973,  and  of  silver,  from  1880  to  1891, 
as  about  234,000  kilos,  valued  at  $11,676,000.  The  following  sta- 
tistics of  exports  are  not  strictly  accurate,  on  account  of  the  large 
amount  of  gold  dust  and  bars  privately  shipped  out  of  the  coimtry 

96 


MINING. 


97 


to  avoid  the  payment  of  export  taxes;  the  figures  may  be  considered 
very  conservative,  to  say  the  least. 


Gold. 

SUver. 

Years. 

Kilos. 

Ounces, 
fine. 

Value. 

Kilos. 

Ounces, 
fine. 

Value. 

1893...       .            

4,353 
4,339 
4,890 
5,416 
5,868 
5,567 
3,462 
3,462 
3,114 
3,561 
4,098 
2,970 
2,970 
3,2% 
4,898 
4,530 
4,660 

Colombian 
dollars. 
2, 892,  800 
2, 892,  800 
3, 183, 000 
3,600,000 
3,900,000 
3,  700, 000 
2, 300, 000 
2,300,000 
2, 070,  000 
2,500,000 

2,  724,  000 
1, 974, 000 
1, 974, 000 
2, 190,  522 
3,25.5,311 
3, 010,  565 

3,  100,  500 
3,369,941 
3,751,632 

52,511 
52,511 
53,500 
51,200 
51,200 
51,200 
109,  531 
87, 089 
78,380 

1,688,230 
1, 688,  230 
1, 720, 025 
1, 646, 080 
1,646,080 
1, 646, 080 
3, 521,  563 
2,800,000 
2,  520, 000 

Colombian 
dollars. 
1,  320, 126 

1894 

139,  516 
154,000 
174, 165 
188, 679 
179,003 
111,  272 
111,272 
100, 145 
120,  831 
131,  785 
95,  520 
95,520 
105,966 
157,  471 
145, 649 
1.50,  000 
279, 342 

1, 063, 610 

1895 

1, 122, 965 

1896 

1, 104, 384 

1897 

985, 191 

1898 

971, 187 

1899 

2, 098, 147 

1900     

1, 719, 480 

1901 

1,  485,  540 

1902 

1903 

1904 

1905 

31, 103 
30, 482 

1, 000,  (K)0 
980,000 

603,500 

1906 

654, 552 

1907 

1908 

1909 

176, 127 

1910 

407, 690 
210, 233 

1911 

10, 574 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  MINING  IN  COLOMBU. 

The  following  account  is  from  ''Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder, 
pages  168-178:^ 

In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  principal  mining  districts  of  Colombia  are  still 
those  that  were  discovered  and  worked  by  the  Spaniards,  in  the  historical  political 
divisions  of  Antioquia,  Cauca,  Santander,  and  Tolima.  A  mention  of  the  countless 
placers  and  places  where  mines  are  worked  or  known  would  read  almost  like  a  gazetteer 
of  those  sections  of  Colombia;  we  can  only  mention  a  few  of  the  more  important  regions, 
especially  those- that  have  most  interested  foreign  capital. 

ANTIOQUIA,   THE   PRINCIPAL   MINING   REGION. 

Antioquia  has  always  been  the  chief  mining  section,  and  still  maintains  its  lead 
both  for  quartz  deposits  and  placers.  Many  of  its  mines  have  been  worked  continu- 
ously from  the  Spanish,  and  even  the  Indian,  days,  without  diminution.  A  French 
engineer  says:^  "The  massif  of  Antioquia  alone  is  perhaps  the  richest  auriferous 
deposit  in  the  world,  and  only  awaits  the  hand  of  capital  to  show  its  immense  value. 
*  *  *  One  can  say  of  this  region,  extremely  mountainous  and  full  of  ravines,  cut 
in  all  directions  by  fractures  or  lodes,  which  are  nearly  all  gold-bearing,  that  it  con- 
stitutes an  immense  massif  of  gold.  Barely  the  thousandth  part  of  the  deposits  has 
been  worked.  There  is  gold  everywhere — in  variable  proportions,  it  is  true,  but 
nearly  always  in  workable  and  paying  quantity." 

Of  the  alluvial  mines,  the  most  actively  worked  to-day  are  those  of  the  Cauca, 
Force,  and  Nechi  Rivers  and  the  numerous  mountain  streams,  "quebradas,"  that 
flow  into  them.  The  Force  flows  into  the  Nechi  near  Zaragoza,  the  chief  town  of 
the  region,  whence  there  is  steam  navigation  via  the  Nechi,  the  Cauca,  and  the  Mag- 
dalena  to  Barranquilla.  The  vast  amount  that  has  been  washed  from  the  auri- 
ferous sands  of  this  region  has  not  in  the  least  impaired  the  present  yield;  the  pro- 
duction by  the  natives,  who  prefer  to  work  on  theii;  own  account,  even  if  only  on  a 
small  scale,  is  very  large  and  a  number  of  foreigners,  especially  Americans  and  P'rench, 
are  successfully  working  with  hydraulic  monitors  on  a  large  scale,  and  undertaking 
extensive  ditching  and  tunneling. 

"  TMs  is  reproduced  because  it  presents  the  most  concrete  and  comprehensive  description  of  mining  in 
general,  conveying  an  excellent  idea  of  the  industry  in  Colombia. 

2  Detnangeon:  L'Indu.strie  Aurifere  en  Colombie  (Paris,  1906,  1907).  See  also  Granger  and  Trevillc: 
Mining  Districts  of  Colombia  (Tr.  Am.  Inst.  Mining  Eug.,  vol.  28, 1898). 

37558°— 21 7 


98        COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDySTEIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  most  intereeting  developmentB  now  going  on  are  for  the  dredging  operations  of 
the  Pato  Mines  (Colombia)  (Ltd.),  a  subsidiary  of  the  Oroville  Dredging  Co.,  which 
has  had  such  remarkable  success  in  California.  The  company  has  already  expended 
(1911) — exclusive  of  the  purchase  price  of  its  properties,  which  were  paici  for  in 
shares — considerably  over  half  a  million  dollars,  and  will  require  for  its  permanent 
dam  (to  be  a  concrete  structure  65  feet  high,  and  requiring  15.000  cubic  yards  of 
masonry — it  will  be  the  finest  in  Colombia)  an  additional  $174,000,  besides  other 
large  expenditures.  The  company's  bench  gravel  deposits  in  the  Pato  basin  have 
been  thoroughly  proved  by  boring,  special  attention  is  being  paid  to  sanitation,  and, 
with  the  company's  experience  elsewhere  and  its  resources,  this  enterprise  will 
undoubtedly  prove  a  success  and  redeem  the  rather  unfortunate  past  history  of 
dredging  in  Colombia.  Development  on  a  large  scale,  preparatory  to  dredging  opera- 
tions, is  also  being  undertaken  in  the  vicinity  of  Caceres  by  another  American  cor- 
poration, the  Breitung  Mines  Corporation. 

Vein  mines  were  opened  in  Antioquia  as  early  as  1581,  and  worked  all  during  the 
Spanish  dominion,  but  with  comparatively  meager  results,  due  to  the  crude  methods 
employed.  In  1825  some  rich  veins  near  Anon  were  worked,  and  soon  after  an 
Englisnman,  Mr.  James,  erected  the  first  mills  in  the  country  to  cnish  the  Anori  ore 
and  his  example  was  soon  followed,  especially  at  Amalfi,  Remedios,  the  Bolivia, 
Zancudo,  and  Frontino  mines.  In  1851  Mr.  Tyrrell  Moore,  another  Englishman,, 
established  a  smelting  plant  at  Titiribi  for  the  auriferous  ores  of  that  rich  region, 
including  the  Zancudo  mines,  whose  owners,  however,  erected  their  own  smelter 
under  a  German  miner,  Reinhold  Paschke,  and  Moore's  works,  after  an  expenditure 
of  £120,000,  failed.  Several  other  disastrous  failures,  especially  of  English  companies 
^the  British  have  gone  in  more  for  quartz  mines,  the  Americans  showing  a  preference 
lor  placers)  have  marred  Colombian  mining  history,  but,  where  not  due  to  the  intro- 
duction of  machinery  at  a  greater  expense  than  the  circumstances  warranted,  they 
have  been  of  a  character  to  impeach  the  quality  not  of  the  ore,  but  of  the  management, 
and  are  more  than  redeemed  by  the  long  and  successful  history,  not  only  of  native 
enterprises  but  of  other  foreign  mining  companies. 

One  of  the  most  notable  of  the  latter  is  that  of  the  Frontino  &  Bolivia  Mining  Co. 
(Ltd.),  which  in  1852  boughtthe  Frontino  mineand  several  others  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Remedios  (the  most  important X)f  the  mining  sections  of  Colombia) ,  After  weathering 
early  managerial  misfortunes  it  has  had  a  successful  career,  and  has  been  almost  con- 
stantly one  of  the  best  managed  and  most  profitable  mines  in  Colombia.  Of  late  years 
working  costs  have  been  very  high,  expenditures  and  revenue  almost  balancing,  but 
it  is  now  making  extensive  additions  in  equipment,  power  plant,  and  new  develop- 
ment, which  will  insure,  according  to  its  engineers,  a  net  working  profit  of  £3,000  per 
month.  They  report  that  its  two  principal  mines,  the  ' '  Salada  "  and  the  ' ' Silencio, " 
are  still  only  in  their  infancy,  and  another  property,  the  "  Marmajito-Cogete, "  of  great 
promise.  Another  important  mine  in  the  same  district,  thought  by  some  to  l>e  of  the 
same  lode,  is  the  "  San  Nicolas, "  worked  by  a  French  company ;  this  mine  was  the  first 
to  introduce  the  cyanide  process  in  Colombia. 

Scarcely  inferior  to  the  production  of  the  Remedios  district  is  that  of  Titiribi.  Here 
is  the  great  gold  and  silver  mine  of  "Zancudo,  "  which  we  have  already  mentioned, 
and  its  annexes,  owned  and  very  al)ly  managed  by  native  Colomlnans  3;  originally 
worked  for  gold,  later  the  silver  output  became  by  far  the  more  important,  having 
reached  in  some  years  three-quarters  of  a  million  dollars.  It  has  the  singular  ad\-an- 
tage,  too,  of  being  situated  at  the  foot  of  an  extensive  coal  deposit,  and  is  also  within 
convenient  access  of  Medellin,  the  commercial  center  and  political  capital  of  the 
Department  of  Antioquia,  the  second  in  the  Republic.  An  a.ssay  office  was  erected 
in  Medellin  in  1858  and  two  others  in  the  early  eightie-s.  The  mint  for  the  coinage 
of  gold  and  silver,  closed  for  a  number  of  years,  has  been  recently  reopened.  There 
is  also  a  very  creditable  school  of  mines  where  competent  engineers  are  trained;  the 
Antioquia  people  are  bom  miners.  The  lower  classes  furnish  an  excellent  quality 
of  labor,*  which  gives  this  generally  healthful  region  [healthful  only  in  the  mountains 
above  5,000  feet  elevation]  a  still  further  advantage  over  other  parts  of  Colomliia; 
among  the  middle  and  upper  classes  able  engineers  and  mine  managers  are  to  be 
found.  Some  of  the  best-managed  and  most  profitable  mines  in  the  country,  l^esides 
the  "Zancudo" — e.  g.,  "La  Constancia"  and  the  "Solferino"  at  Anori,  "La  Cascada" 
at  Manizales — are  operated  and  engineered  entirely  by  Colombians,  and  many  Antio- 
quenos  have  l)ecome  wealthy  in  the  mining  industry. 

*  A  majority  of  the  shares  or  rights  Ls  held  by  the  Compagnle  Unifl^e  du  Zancudo  (capital,  4,000,000  francs), 
the  shares  of  which,  in  turn,  are  principally  held  by  Colombians. 

*  Labor,  however,  is  scarce,  as  the  men  prefer  to  mine  for  their  own  account,  and  even  high  wages  often 
fail  to  tempt  them  into  the  employ  of  the  large  companies. 


MINING.  99 

REGION    OF   MARMATO   AND   SUPIA. 

Another  rich  region  is  that  of  Marmato  and  Supia.  The  mines  of  that  name  belong 
to  the  Government,  being  leased  out.  In  1825  the  London  firm  of  Goldschmidt  &  Co. 
leased  the  mines  and  did  much  to  improve  the  methods  of  mining.  They  are  now 
under  lease  to  the  Colombian  Mining  &  Exploration  Co.,  of  London,  which  pays  the 
Government  an  annual  rental  of  £3,200.  Electric  power  is  being  installed,  and  a 
recent  report  says :  ' '  The  energetic  development  at  greater  depths  of  one  of  the  numer- 
ous group  of  mines  leased  to  this  company  has  given  such  excellent  results  and  so  fully 
confirmed  anticipation  that  a  6, 000- ton  plant  has  been  decided  on  and  shipment  already 
commenced."  Near  here  are  the  "Echandia"  mines,  which  made  a  celebrated  for- 
tune a  few  years  ago  for  a  Colombian  named  Chaves,  and  the  ' '  Pantano  "  mine,  which 
has  been  successfully  operated  by  the  Western  Andes  Mining  Co.  All  these  mines 
are  situated  in  the  Western  Cordillera  not  far  from  the  Cauca  River;  throughout  the 
whole  extent  of  the  mountains  surrounding  the  Upper  Cauca  Valley  some  placer  and 
quartz  mines  are  worked,  though  hitherto  on  an  insignificant  scale.  Recent  purchases 
by  P>ench  and  Belgian  sj-ndicates,  however,  which  in  addition  liave  purchased  vari- 
ous options,  promise  a  more  active  development.  Farther  south,  around  Pasto  and 
toward  the  Ecuadorian  frontier,  a  new  rich  region  has  been  opened  up  in  the  last  few 
years;  several  hundred  mines  have  been  denounced  [located],  especially  in  the  dis- 
tricts of  Samaniego  and  Mallama,  and  a  number  of  EngUsh  and  Americans  have  intro- 
duced modem  machinery  and  are  working  good  quartz  properties. 

EASTERN    SLOPES    OF   CENTRAL   ANDES — EASTERN   CORDILLERA. 

On  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Central  Andes  there  are  several  localities  of  interest. 
The  Mariquita  region,  which  had  fame  in  the  Spanish  days,  is  again  active;  in  this 
range,  too,  are  "Santa  Ana"  and  "La  Manta, "  Government-owned  mines  acquired 
by  inheritance  from  the  Spanish  Crown,  more  interesting  historically  than  of  present- 
day  importance.  It  was  here  that  in  1785  a  mining  engineer  of  great  note  in  his  day, 
d'Elhuyar,  was  imported  by  the  Viceroy  to  introduce  the  Freiberg  process.  During 
the  11  years  he  was  in  charge  the  expenses  were  $232,641,  against  a  gross  product 
of  $27,247.  Forty  years  later  the  English  firm  of  Herring,  Graham  &  Powles  met  with 
a  similar  experience,  erecting  smelting  works  at  great  expense,  and  in  13  years  spend- 
ing over  £200,000  and  taking  out  silver  valued  at  £28,000,  Subsequent  working  by 
them,  however,  was  more  profitable.  The  mines  are  now  under  lease  to  the  Anglo- 
Colombian  Investment  Co.,  of  London.  The  gold  veins  in  the  ToUma  district,  witli 
few  exceptions,  are  rich  superficially  but  pinch  out  at  a  depth  of  10  to  20  fatiioms, 
alluvial  gold  washings  being  more  abundant  and  gi^dng  better  results.  In  this  region 
the  most  important  mines  are  those  of  the  North  Tolima  Mining  Co.,  of  London,  at 
Frias.  Since  their  rediscovery  in  1870  they  have  been  continuously  worked;  in  1895 
the  annual  output  of  silver  was  little  less  than  $800,000.  The  company  was  organized 
in  1910  with  a  capital  of  £100,000  and  has  been  shipping  some  1,600  sacks  (65  kilos 
each)  of  silver  a  year  by  mule  back  to  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway. 

The  Eastern  Cordillera  is  of  far  less  importance  than  the  other  two,  though  gold  has 
been  discovered  at  a  number  of  points.  Here,  too,  was  the  greatest  "bonanza"  ever 
found  in  Colombia;  the  mine  called  "Pie  de  Gallo"  yielded  in  a  few  hours  64  kilos 
of  gold,  but  that  was  in  Spanish  days.  At  present  the  only  important  foreign  com- 
panies are  near  Bucaramanga,  the  Francia  Gold  Mining  Co.,  a  French  concern,  espe- 
cially having  been  particularly  active  in  1911  in  acquiring  title  to  additional  mining 
claims. 

RIVERS    OF   THE    PACIFIC    LITTORAL. 

The  rivers  of  the  Pacific  littoral  are  nearly  all  auriferous,  several  of  them  being 
strikingly  rich.  In  the  earlier  days,  the  Barbacoas  region  was  especially  productive, 
but  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  1851  crippled  the  placers.  Again,  in  the  sixties,  there 
was  quite  a  boom  and  an  influx  of  California  miners,  but  the  climate  proved  a  deterrent. 
Lately  there  has  been  a  considerable  revival  of  interest  all  along  the  coast;  a  French 
company  has  been  established  on  the  Timbiqui  for  a  number  of  years,  obtaining  a 
steady,  though  not  very  large  yield.  An  Australian  company  has  also  been  at  work, 
but  its  first  attempts  at  dredging  were  unsuccessful.  Nothing  on  a  large  scale  has  yet 
been  done;  such  production  as  there  is  from  this  region  is  obtained  chiefly  by  native 
laborers,  who  still  continue  the  primitive  methods  of  washing  the  sands  in  "bateas," 
the  Colombian  wooden  substitute  for  the  pan. 


100     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

THE   CHOCO   REGION. 

We  have  already  had  occasion  in  speaking  of  platinum  to  refer  to  the  rich  placers  of 
the  Choco  r^on,  the  Atrato  and  San  Juan  Rivers  and  their  tributaries.  This  also  was 
a  gold  field  little  inferior  to  Antioquia  in  the  days  when  slaves  could  be  employed  (the 
annual  output  at  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  was  about  a  million  dollars) ; 
but  u^til  recently  the  difficulties  of  access,  the  bad  climate  and  reputation  for  fevers, 
not  wholly  undeserved,  and  the  decided  inferiority  of  the  labor  (almost  entirely  Negro) 
to  that  of  Antioquia  have  been  deterrents.  With  an  increased  knowledge  and  modem 
practice  of  saiiitation  and  scientific  methods  of  overcoming  obstacles,  the  Choco  will 
again  become  one  of  the  great  gold  regions  of  the  world.  Robert  Blake  White,  the 
English  engineer,  who  has  contributed  much  to  our  knowledge  of  Colombia,  said, 
speaking  of  the  Choco:  "I  do  not  know  of  any  rivers  outside  of  Colombia  where  such 
favorable  conditions  for  the  extraction  of  gold  exist,"  and  his  opinion  has  been  con- 
firmed by  subsequent  explorers.  A  well-known  American  mining  engineer,  Mr. 
Henry  Granger,  who  has  discovered  and  located  more  claims  than  any  other  man  in 
this  section  and  perhaps  in  the  whole  of  Colombia,  attempted  dredging  a  few  years  ago, 
but  failed;  nothing  daunted,  he  is  at  it  again,  with  new  financial  backing  from  well- 
known  mining  capitalists  of  New  York.  And  a  great  stimulus  will  be  given  this  region 
by  the  Anglo-Colombian  Development  Co.,  of  which  mention  has  already  been  made. 
This  company,  in  addition  to  its  exploration  work,  is  rendering  a  much-needed  public 
service  in  establishing  steamer  communication  on  the  San  Juan  River  from  Buena- 
ventura. 

COLOMBIA   "not   A   POOR   MAn's   MINING    COUNTRY." 

A  useful  note  of  warning  is  sounded  by  Consul  Isaac  A.  Manning  in  Daily  Consular 
Reports,  October  31,  1912:  "This  is  not  a  poor  man's  mining  country.  A  prospector 
without  capital  stands  little  show  in  Colombia,  largely  because  of  the  lack  of  transpor- 
tation facilities,  the  rugged  character  of  the  country,  the  rigors  of  the  climate,  and  the 
difficulties  of  securing  supplies  and  food  except  at  nigh  prices.  Principally,  however, 
this  is  true  because  no  quantity  of  '  panning '  or  *  rocker '  ground  is  to  be  found  from 
which  the  prosp>ector  can  recoup  his  expenses.  Scientific  prospecting  only  will  pay  in 
Colombia.  Very  few  paying  ledges  have  been  discovered,  and  they  are  frequently 
much  disturbed  and  contain  'horses'  of  barren  rock.  That  there  are  numerous  de- 
posits yet  waiting  discovery  can  not  be  doubted;  but,  as  a  general  thing,  these  will 
be  found,  if  placers,  to  carry  such  an  'overload'  of  surface  materials  as  to  require 
machinery  for  satisfactory  prospecting  or  development;' if  quartz,  to  be  of  low  grade 
and,  in  the  main,  to  carry  refractory  ores.  *  *  *  Most  of  the  gold  veins  in 
Colombia  are  of  very  refractory  nature  and  can  be  worked  to  advantage  only  with 
the  most  modern  and  improved  machinery  and  systems." 

PROVISIONS    OF   MINING   LAWS. 

The  mining  laws  are  very  liberal  and  every  facility  is  given  to  the  prospector  to 
explore  and  denounce  [locate]  mines,  not  only  in  public  lands,  but  in  privately  owned 
lands.  There  is  liberality,  too,  in  the  grant  of  easements  necessary  for  the  proper 
working  of  mines,  which  are  treated  on  the  same  basis  as  public  utilities  and  the  right 
of  expropriation  or  condemnation  given  for  their  benefit.  There  is,  however,  consider- 
able red  tape,  and  sometimes  there  is  apt  to  be  much  delay  before -final  title  is  adjudi- 
cated by  tne  Government,  but  the  danger  of  "jumping"  claims  is  reduced  to  a  min- 
imum. The  expenses  for  locating  claims,  obtaining  possession,  and  acquiring  title 
are  comparatively  small,  and  the  annual  taxes  are  very  low,  and  if  the  equivalent  of 
40  years  taxes  is  paid  in  at  once,  an  indefeasible  title  in  fee  is  acquired,  exempt  in 
perpetuity  from  future  taxes. 

Another  feature  of  the  law,  while  attractive  from  some  standpoints,  especially  that 
of  the  large  company  investing  heavily  for  plant  and  machinery  and  naturally  desiring 
reserve  ores  in  the  neighborhood,  has  done  much  to  hinder  the  mining  development 
of  the  country,  and  that  is,  that  so  long  as  the  taxes  are  paid  no  annual  work  whatsoever 
need  be  done  in  order  to  preserve  the  locator's  rights.  The  consequence  is  there  are  a 
great  number  of  mines  which  have  been  denounced  and  acquired  (fully  half  of  them) 
whose  owners,  for  the  lack  of  capital  or  of  initiative,  do  nothing  but  wait  for  some  one 
to  come  along  and  buy  them  out.  And  because  of  exaggerated  ideas  of  the  values  of 
the  properties,  which  they  themselves  have  never  scientifically  explored,  they  often 
ask  inflated  and  prohibitive  prices.  Consequently  a  large  area  of  known  good  mines 
and  mining  land  lies  idle  and  unproductive  because  the  owners  will  neither  exploit 
them  themselves  or  allow  others  to  do  so  on  reasonable  terms.    The  policy  of  the  law 


MINING.  101 

fluctuated  greatly  on  this  point  for  many  years,  but  the  present  system  was  finally 
adopted  in  1896.^  There  are,  of  course,  two  sides  to  the  question:  A  reconciliation 
might  perhaps  be  effected  by  amending  the  law  as  to  future  denouncements  [locations], 
so  as  to  require  working  except  in  cases  where  adjoining  or  near-by  claims  are  held 
under  the  same  ownership  as  mines  in  active  operation.  The  law  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
waters  might  also  be  advantageously  amended,  so  as  to  do  away  with  the  preference  now 
given  to  the  first  discoverer  of  mines  in  the  neighborhood,  whether  he  works  his  mine 
or  not,  and  likewise  the  procedure  for  assessing  damages  is  susceptible  of  improvement, 
the  present  system  giving  plentiful  opportunity  for  petty  but  annoying  extortion. 

A  valuable  privilege  appurtenant  to  mining  claims  is  the  preferential  right  to  an 
adjudication  of  a  large  tract  of  public  lands  in  the  vicinity  of  the  ' '  pertenencia, ' '  as  the 
mining  unit  of  soil  granted  is  called .  As,  with  rare  exceptions,  the  public  lands  in  the 
mining  regions  are  forest  covered ,  this  insures  a  supply  of  the  necessary  timber  required 
for  mining  operations.  The  nation  can  well  afford  to  be  generous  with  its  public  lands 
and  forests.  Even  apart  from  the  great  "llanos"  and  "selvas"  of  the  Amazon  and 
Orinoco  watersheds,  about  one-third  of  the  area  of  the  country  is  still  in  the  public 
domain. 

Almost  every  known  mineral  of  commercial  importance  exists  in 
Colombia,  but  the  future  importance  of  the  mining  industry,  other 
than  gold  and  platinum  mining,  is  dependent  upon  the  development 
of  better  transportation  by  means  of  railways  and  roads.  Numbers  of 
mines  and  several  rich  mining  regions  are  practically  inaccessible,  and 
mining  costs  would  be  excessive  unless  very  rich  deposits  were  dis- 
covered. 

Foreign  companies  wishing  to  prospect  for  placer  mining  in  Colom- 
bia should  be  prepared  to  furnish  a  large  expedition,  well  equipped 
and  having  men  experienced  in  the  Tropics.  Medical  service  should 
also  be  provided  as  a  necessary  requisite  to  the  success  of  the  work. 
Such  properties  can  only  be  developed  successfully  by  large  capi- 
tal, and  the  cost  of  operation  and  equipment  is  very  great.  The 
general  opinion  among  practical  and  experienced  mining  engineers 
who  know  the  country  and  conditions  is  that  only  the  most  valuable 
ground  can  be  worked  at  a  profit  under  present  circumstances. 

At  the  end  of  the  year  1915  the  number  of  known  mines  in  five  of 
the  most  important  Departments  of  Colombia  was  18,386 — 12,181  in 
the  Department  of  Antioquia,  2,452  in  the  Department  of  Narino, 
2,610  in  the  Department  of  Caldas,  641  in  the  Department  of  El  Valle, 
and  502  in  the  Department  of  Tolima.  In  addition  to  this  list,  min- 
erals, mostly  gold,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Departments  of  Santander 
and  Bolivar,  in  the  Choco  Intendency,  and  elsewhere. 

COPPER  MINES. 

Copper  was  mined  by  the  Indians,  and  the  industry  was  followed 
in  a  very  primitive  way  by  the  Spaniards  in  Colombia  during  colonial 
times,  but  for  local  consumption  only,  the  principal  sources  of  the 
metal  being  obtained  from  rich  oxidized  ores  found  very  near  to,  or  on, 
the  surface.  Old  copper  mines  exist  in  the  Departments  of  Antioquia, 
Boyaca,  and  Tolima,  those  of  Boyaca  being  worked  in  a  small  way 
and  by  very  crude  methods,  to  secure  copper  for  kettles  for  sugar 
and  soap  making.  The  mineral  is  also  known  in  the  Departments  of 
Bolivar,  Cauca,  Cundinamarca,  Santander,  and  in  Norte  de  San- 
tander, where  only  recently,  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  town  of 
Fonseca  and  also  at  Villanueva  in  the  Valle  Dupar  district,  an  Ameri- 
can engineer  reported  having  examined  large  deposits  of  rich  copper 

'  Note  by  Tk\de  Commissioner.— See  decision  of  Supreme  Court  re  Petroleum  Decree  No.  1255  of 
June  20, 1919,  dated  Nov.  21, 1919.    This  recites  the  history  of  mining  laws  and  leRislation  in  Colombia. 


102      COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAIi   HANDBOOK. 

ore,  occurring  in  series  of  pockets  near  the  surface  and  being  very  near 
to  extensive  Dcds  of  a  fair  grade  of  bituminous  coal,  about  150  miles 
from  the  Caribbean  Sea  at  Kio  Hacha,  by  way  of  the  Goajira  Penin- 
sula country  to  the  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

In  the  Department  of  Cauca  the  principal  deposits  of  copper  occur 
at  San  Lorenzo,  Coli,  Pichinche,  and  Andragueda,  but,  like  others  in 
the  country,  these  are  not  being  worked  and  await  better  transporta- 
tion facilities,  which  will  be  provided  by  the  southern  branch  to 
Popayan  of  the  Pacific  Railway.  As  there  is  little  interest  in  copper 
properties  in  Colombia  at  the  present  time,  there  appear  to  be  no  re- 
ports or  studies  of  deposits  of  this  ore  from  which  data  as  to  their 
nature  and  geology  could  be  obtained. 

'  GOLD  MINES. 

PRINCIPAL  COMPANIES. 

Gold  is  the  most  important  mineral  produced  in  Colombia,  the 
exports  of  gold  bars  in  1915  amounting  to  $3,580,108,  of  gold  dust  to 
$1,126,904,  and  of  gold  coins  to  $415,212,  The  Breitung  Mines  Co.,  a 
Delaware  corporation  capitalized  at  $1,527,590,  acquired  some  time 
ago  the  property  of  the  Marquette  Magdalena  Co.,  situated  near  the 
town  of  Caceres  on  the  Cauca  River  in  Antioquia.  These  claims  were 
not  worked,  however,  in  1916  and  no  dividends  are  being  paid. 

The  Compania  Minera  de  Zancudo,  with  headquarters  m  Medcllin, 
continued  to  operate  the  mines  of  ''Zancudo,"  "Chorres,"  "Cat- 
eador,"  and  "Muriel,"  carrying  gold  and  silver  values,  and  the  small 
smelter  located  at  Sitio-Viejo.  The  ores  are  silver  and  gold,  with  a 
higher  percentage  of  the  latter  and  with  some  copper  as  a  by-product. 

Great  Britain  has  successfully  entered  the  gold-mining  field  in  Co- 
lombia, the  most  important  of  these  British  properties  being  the  Pato 
mines,  the  Nechi  mines,  the  Frontino-Bolivia  mines,  etc.  The  Pato 
mines  cover  an  area  of  about  40,000  acres  near  the  town  of  Zaragoza 
in  Antioquia  on  the  Nechi  River,  consisting  of  bench  gravel  gold-bear- 
ing ground.  The  company  has  a  capitalization  of  £212,000,  8  per 
cent  income  notes  and  £100,000  shares,  being  affiliated  with  the  Oro- 
ville  Dredging  Co.,  of  California,  which  controls  the  property  through 
ownership  of  £70,000  of  the  total  £100,000  of  the  stock.  The  same 
company  also  owns  the  Nechi  Mines  (Ltd.),  under  the  same  manage- 
ment as  the  Pato  Mines  (Ltd.),  through  ownership  of  £70,000  ordinary 
stock.  During  the  10  months  ended  June  30,  1916,  the  yield  of  gold 
was  valued  at  $525,130. 

The  Pato  mines  and  the  other  large  vein  and  placer  properties  of 
the  country  were  affected  to  a  very  great  extent  by  war  conditions. 
Not  only  was  there  a  great  increase  in  operating  expenses  and  the  cost 
of  new  machinery,  equipment,  and  supplies,  but  taxation  by  the 
respective  countries  had  the  effect  of  suspending  active  production  of 

fold,  for  the  reason  that  the  income  tax  took  no  account  of  the  con- 
ition  of  the  industry  and  had  the  effect  of  inducing  the  companies 
to  leave  the  richest  ground  alone  until  such  time  as  conditions  are 
more  favorable.  The  gold  produced,  instead  of  being  exported  (as 
was  formerly  the  case,  on  account  of  the  premium  on  London  and  New 
York  exchange  in  Colombia),  was  sent  to  the  Medellin  mint  for  coinage 
when  foreign  exchange  was  at  a  discount,  especially  in  1919,  the  com- 
panies thereby  reaping  an  additional  profit  on  the  purchase  of  New 


MINING.  103 

York  and  London  exchange  at  a  heavy  discount  with  Colombian  gold 
coin  secured  from  the  Government  mint  at  Medellin.     However,  the 

Erofits  on  exchange  did  not  reimburse  the  companies  for  their  extra 
eavy  operating  expenses  during  the  war  nor  for  the  requirements  of 
the  income  tax  or  corporation  tax,  making  it  unprofitable  for  them  to 
work  their  best  ground. 

The  Frontino  &  Bolivia  Mines  was  registered  in  Great  Britain  in 
1911,  as  the  successor  to  a  company  of  similar  name  incorporated  in 
1886,  to  acquire  the  original  Frontino  &  Bolivia  Co.,  which  began 
operations  in  1864.  Mines  covering  about  5,000  acres  are  held  near 
Medellin  in  Antioquia.  The  exports  of  gold  amounted  to  £86,972  in 
1912-13,  £88,311  m  1914-15,  and  $115,460  in  the  period  1915-16. 

The  Tolima  Mining  Co.,  another  British  corporation,  owns  the 
Frias  silver  mines  and  water-power  rights  at  Tolima. 

The  Timbiqui  Gold  Mines-  (Ltd.)  owns  placer  claims  on  the  Tim- 
biqui  River,  the  properties  covering  rights  to  about  865  square  kilo- 
meters of  territory.  Gold  produced  in  1913  was  valued  at  £33,390 
and  in  1914  at  £38,750. 

The  Colombian  Mines  Corporation  (Ltd.)  owns  extensive  mines  in 
the  Remedies  district  of  Antioquia.  Operations  were  started  in  1883, 
and  substantial  dividends  have  been  paid  in  the  past.  Leases  on  the 
''Sucve"  and  "  Providencia "  properties  expired  in  1913,  and  during 
the  war  operations  have  been  suspended,  properties  being  leased  to 
other  interests. 

The  Colombian  Mining  &  Exploration  Co.,  registered  in  London  in 
1908,  owns  leases  and  mining  properties  in  the  districts  of  Supia  and 
Marmato  and  in  the  municipalities  of  Apia,  San  Clemente,  Anser- 
maviejo,  Sucio,  Rio  Sucio,  Nazaret,  and  Marmato.  The  principal 
property  is  the  Marmato  Hill  mine. 

The  ralenque  Gold  Mining  Syndicate,  formed  in  1898,  owns  the 
hydraulic  properties  located  at  ralenque,  near  Honda,  Department 
of  Tolima;  it  leased  the  mines  in  1909  to  another  company  for  25  per 
cent  of  the  profits. 

Another  foreign  property  is  that  of  the  Platinum  &  Gold  Conces- 
sions of  Colombia  (Ltd.),  a  Belgian  company,  leasing^  alluvial  platinum 
and  gold  properties  located  on  the  lower  Opogado  River  in  the  Choco 
Territory,  near  the  town  of  Novita,  and  having  an  extent  of  about  15 
kilometers  (9.32  miles)  in  length  by  2  kilometers  (1.24  miles)  in 
width. 

A  French  company  known  as  the  San  Antonio  Gold  Mines  Co. 
(Ltd.),  acquired  gold-mining  properties  near  Cali,  Department  of 
El  Valle,  in  1912,  and  will  install  modern  equipment  as  soon  as  con- 
ditions after  the  war  make  this  possible. 

AREA  OF  GOLD  PRODUCTION. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia  is  the  chief  gold-producing  region  of 
Colombia,  the  interior  mountains  containing  the  gold-bearing  veins, 
which  occur  in  great  profusion,  while  in  the  region  to  the  north,  along 
the  Porce,  Nechi,  Cauca,  and  many  other  smaller  rivers,  one  finds 
the  principal  alluvial  gold  mining.  Everywhere  in  the  interior  where 
even  small  streams  are  encountered,  there  is  seen  the  debris  of  old 
placer  operations.  In  Antioquia  the  entire  length  of  the  Porce  River 
from  Medellin  down  to  the  Nechi  has  been  worked  by  the  natives, 


104    oolombia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

and  there  still  remain  rich  benches  where  machinery  and  modern 
methods  are  necessary  to  handle  the  great  bowlders  and  to  bring  in 
water  for  washing.  One  American  company  has  installed  hydraulic 
equipment  with  great  success  near  Force  Station  in  Antioquia. 

Antioquia  consists  of  an  agglomeration,  or  cluster,  of  mountains, 
forming  the  end  of  theCentralCordillera  of  the  Andes  where  it  begins 
to  spread  out  into  the  foothills  and  plains  near  the  boundary  of 
Antioquia  and  Bolivar.  There  are  many  good  formations  for  gold 
veins.  The  mountains  east  and  southeast  of  Remcdios,  the  rivers 
of  Tamar,  Ite,  and  the  region  called  "  Alcante"  are  still  unexplored  to 
any  extent,  as  are  also  trie  left  banks  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mag- 
delena,  such  as  the  San  Bartolome,  Narc,  and  La  Miel  Rivers,  where 
placer  and  quartz  mines  have  not  been  seriously  prospected  as  yet. 
Also,  the  northeastern  region  of  the  Sucio,  Dabeiba,  Ituango,  and 
Simitaba  Rivers,  etc.,  are  almost  deserted  at  the  present  time. 

Gold  is  found  not  only  in  quartz  formations  but  also  in  mica  schist, 
which  requires  more  work  and  expense  than  is  generally  the  rule  with 
placers.  All  old  gold  mines  possess  their  history,  more  or  less  exag- 
gerated by  the  natives,  who  are  expert  surface  prospectors  for  rich, 
free  ores. 

The  placer  gold  region  of  Antioquia  begins  at  Medellin  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Force  River  and  extends  north  as  far  as  the  San 
Jorge  River  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar.  The  Force  flows  into  the 
Nechi  and  the  Nechi  into  the  Cauca,  and  there  are  innumerable  small 
streams  forming  a  network  of  rivers  and  swamps,  with  gold-bearing 
^avel  found  in  the  benches  of  the  hills  of  the  rivers'  courses  and  also 
m  the  beds  of  the  streams.  The  entire  region  is  alluvial  in  formation 
and  can  be  said  to  have  been  practically  untouched,  so  far  as  large 
mining  operations  are  concerned.  There  is  unlimited  opportunity 
for  dredging  and  hydraulic  mining  on  a  large  scale.  The  famous  Fato 
mines  are  located  on  the  Nechi  River  near  Zaragoza  in  this  region. 

The  entire  placer  district  is  very  tropical,  consisting  of  low  hills 
covered  with  a  dense  tropical  growth,  interspersed  with  small  streams. 
The  climate  is  very  unhealthful,  and  native  miners  from  the  interior 
of  Antioquia  can  hardly  be  persuaded  to  come  down  from  their  hills 
into  this  region  on  account  of  the  fevers  prevalent  there.  The  bulk 
of  the  population,  which  is  small,  consists  of  Negroes  and  mulattoes, 
who  furnish  most  of  the  labor  for  the  dredging  companies,  and 
who  also  engage  in  washing  for  ^old  on  their  own  account. 

Dredging  with  small  dredges  is  the  only  form  of  ^old  mining  now 
carried  on  in  the  Tigui  region.  Frospecting  and  drilling  operations 
show  that  bedrock  is  struck  at  a  depth  of  12  to  15  feet,  and  that  con- 
sequently yardage  runs  very  low,  not  over  10,000  to  15,000  yards 
per  acre. 

Wages  of  the  native  washers  and  placer  miners  average  from  $0.25 
to  $1  per  day.  The  earnings  of  the  native  miners  depend  on  whether 
the  ground  is  worked  before  or  after  a  flood,  which  causes  natural 
riffles  to  form  in  bars  along  the  stream.     The  labor  supply  is  plentiful. 

An  American  mining  and  leasing  company  owns  and  operates  a 
quartz  mine  located  in  this  district.  The  plant  consists  of  a  15-20- 
ton  tube  mill,  and  produces  $15,000  worth  of  gold  monthly. 

On  the  headwaters  of  the  Tigui  River  is  located  a  mine  belonging  to 
another  American  concern.  The  property  is  a  large  free-milling  vein 
carrying  an  average  value  of  $40  per  ton.     Work  was  started  seven 


MINING.  105 

years  ago,  and  the  property  has  produced  more  than  $2,000,000  worth 
of  gold  up  to  date.  The  equipment  is  a  10-inch  California-type  stamp 
mill,  operated  by  electrical  machinery.  To  reach  the  mine,  a  river 
steamer  is  taken  at  Barranquilla  up  the  Nechi  River  to  La  Raya, 
thence  two  days  by  canoe  up  the  La  Raya  River,  and  thence,  by  mule 
trail,  two  days'  ride  to  the  mine. 

Adjacent  to  the  Tigui  district  is  the  Cano  Urales  district,  located  in 
the  Department  of  Antioquia  and  very  promising  as  a  mining  center. 
There  are  several  native  stamp  mills  in  this  section,  which  turn  out 
$25,000  to  $30,000  worth  of  metal  per  month.  The  district  has  been 
traveled  by  American  mining  men  and  is  a  good  section  for  pros- 
pectors. Hydroelectric  power  can  be  found  everywhere  and  is  cheap 
and  easy  to  develop.  The  district  is  isolated,  out  there  are  many 
ranches  or  ''fincas     in  the  region,  and  food  is  cheap  and  plentiful. 

The  formation  is  granite  and  slate,  and  there  are  innumerable 
quartz  veins.  Little  blasting  is  done,  as  mining  is  carried  on  with 
bar  and  pick.  The  best  mines  are  at  the  foot  of  the  Cordilleras  and 
along  the  contact  of  the  slate  with  the  granite  lying  east  and  along  the 
Tigui  River.  This  contact  runs  practically  north  and  south.  Farther 
away  are  many  large  veins  of  ''bull"  quartz  which  carry  no  value. 

There  is  an  opportunity  in  this  district  to  introduce  American 
electric  machinery  and  to  take  over  old  native  properties  of  which  a 
number  were  abandoned  when  the  water  level  was  reached,  but  which 
still  carry  excellent  values. 

Going  up  the  Cauca  River  above  the  entrance  of  the  Nechi,  one 
finds  the  alluvial  placer  mines  of  the  Caceres  district,  where  several 
American  companies  are  operating.  In  this  territory  there  are  still 
to  be  exploited  good  gravel  extensions  with  excellent  hydraulic 
mining  and  dredging  conditions — abundance  of  water,  proper  cur- 
rents, and  dumping  facilities,  three  cardinal  requisites  for  placer  and 
alluvial  mining  operations.  Caceres  can,  at  times  of  high  water,  be 
reached  by  river  steamer  from  the  Magdalena  (say  during  two  nionths 
of  the  year),  but  generally  traffic  is  by  launch  and  canoe  down  to 
Nechi  and  to  Zaragdza,  the  largest  town  in  the  district  of  the  placer 
mines  of  Antioquia. 

In  the  large  territory  between  the  Cauca  and  the  Force  Rivers  in 
Antioquia  there  is  an  unexplored  area  which  contains  many  gold 
veins  and  also  alluvial  deposits  at  the  foot  of  the  hills  west  of  Furiii- 
cacion,  Natagaima,  and  Nieve.  This  is  a  region  of  low  hills,  the 
average  elevation  being  about  3,000  feet  above  sea  level  and  the 
climate  not  so  bad  as  that  lower  down,  to  the  north  and  east  toward 
Zaragoza. 

PLATINUM  MINING. 

Colombia  has  long  ranked  second  in  the  world's  production  of 
platinum,  ranking  next  to  Russia,  prior  to  the  war,  and  furnishing 
about  one-tenth  of  the  entire  supply.  It  was  in  the  placers  of 'the 
Choco  that  the  metal  was  first  discovered  by  the  Spanish  scientist, 
Antonio  de  Ulloa,  in  1737,  but  for  years  it  was  collected  with  the 
gold  and  then  thrown  away  as  worthless.  The  depletion  of  the 
Russian  yield  as  far  back  as  1910  and  the  increasingly  high  prices 
"obtained  for  platinum  because  of  its  uses  in  manufacturing,  in  the 
arts,  and  for  jewelry,  capped  by  the  climax  of  the  war,  when  Colombia 
became  the  principal  source  of  supply  and  the  industry  was  greatly 


106     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  Al^TD  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

stimulated/  have  seriously  drawn  the  attention  of  miners  to  Colombia 
as  the  chief  source  of  supply  of  platinum  for  the  future. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  gold  placers  of  the  Choco  Territory,  as  has 
been  said,  platinum  was  collected  with  the  gold  and  then  separated 
and  thrown  away  as  worthless.  In  the  town  of  Quibdo,  the  center 
of  the  placer  mining  of  the  Upper  Atrato  River  region  in  the  Choco, 
the  very  streets  and  yards  of  tne  houses  have  been  mined  and  washecl 
to  recover  the  old  metal  thus  discarded  as  worthless  when  the  wash- 
ing was  for  gold  only.  One  man  extracted  a  total  of  17  pounds  of 
platinum,  worth  about  $28,500,  from  around  the  foundations  of  his 
old  house. 

AREA  OF  PLATINUM  PRODUCTION. 

Platinum  is  found  in  Colombia  throughout  the  entire  western  part 
of  the  country,  from  the  Atrato  River  in  the  north  to  the  Ecuadorian 
border,  but  tnere  are  two  districts  where  the  metal  is  found  in  paying 
quantities- — (1)  the  Barbacoas  region  along  the  Patia  River  and  its 
tributaries  in  the  Department  of  Narino,  reached  by  river  steamer 
from  the  Pacific  port  of  Tumaco,  and  (2)  the  far  more  important 
platinum-mining  region  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato  and  San. 
Juan  Rivers.  The  Atrato  flows  north  through  the  Choco  Intend- 
encv  between  the  low  Pacific  Coast  Range  and  the  Western  Cordillera 
of  tlie  Colombian  Andes  and  empties  into  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  near  the 
boundary. with  Panama,  while  tne  San  Juan  River  rises  just  over  a 
low  block  of  hills  to  the  south  of  the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato  and 
flows  south  as  far  as  the  line  between  the  Choco  Intendency  and  the 
Department  of  El  Valle,  where  it  turns  to  the  west  and  empties  into 
the  Pacific  Ocean  just  below  Cape  Chirambira,  north  of  the  Pacific 
port  of  Buenaventura. 

The  platinum  rivers  of  the  San  Juan  watershed  are  known  as  the 
Condoto,  Platina,  Iro,  Tamana,  Berbara,  Negua,  Andagueda,  Cer- 
tegui,  Agua  Clara,   Negria,   etc. 

The  town  of  Quibdo  is  the  headquarters  for  the  placer  mining 
industry  of  the  Atrato  and  is  located  at  the  head  of  navigation  on 
that  river,  having  steamer  communication  with  Cartagena  (seep.  217). 
The  town  of  Tado,  located  at  the  head  of  the  Raspadura  River,  a 
tributary  of  the  Atrato,  is  in  communication  with  Quibdo  by  canoe, 
and  the  placer  mining  district  of  Quibdo  extends  from  Tado  down 
the  streams  as  far  as  a  point  north  of  Quibdo  on  the  Atrato  River.  An- 
other river  in  this  section  is  the  Baudo,  which  flows  west  into  the 
Pacific  directly  west  of  Tado.  The  town  of  Baudo  is  headquarters 
for  mining  on  the  Baudo  River. 

On  the  San  Juan  River,  which  is  reached  by  small  steamer  from 
Buenaventura,  the  head  of  navigation  is  at  the  town  of  Negria. 
From  this  place  Quibdo  can  be  reached  by  a  canoe  journey  of  two 
days  to  the  mining  town  of  Istmina  and  then  a  two-day  mule  journey, 
followed  by  a  short  canoe  trip  to  Quibdo.  In  this  trip  one  crosses 
the  divide  of  low  hills  between  the  two  watersheds.  The  Condoto 
River  joins  the  San  Juan  6  miles  below  Istmina,  and  at  the  mouth 
of  this  river  is  located  the  main  camp  of  the  Anglo-Colombian  De- 
velopment Co.  (Pacific  Metals  Co.,  Adolph  Lewissohn  &  Sons,  New 
York). 

•  The  war  price,  as  fixed  by  the  United  States  Government  during  the  war,  was  $105  p«-  ounce.  This 
figure  increased,  on  the  removal  of  Government  control  after  the  armistice  in  November,  1918,  to  as  high  as 
$168  per  ounce,  sales  being  made  in  New  York  at  even  higher  prices. 


MINING.  107 

Platinum  is  never  found  in  the  placers  alone,  but  always  with  gold. 
In  some  rivers  gold  predominates,  and  in  others  platinum.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  much  more  platinum  in  relation  to  gold  is  found 
south  of  the  divide  between  tne  Atrato  and  the  San  Juan  Rivers. 

The  greatest  producing  center  for  platinum  is  the  Condoto  River 
district,  which  has  been  worked  more  extensively  during  1917,  1918, 
and  1919  than  ever  before,  and  many  native  miners  were  attracted 
from  the  Quibdo  side  of  the  divide  to  this  district  when  the  high 
price  of  platinum  stimulated  the  industry.  The  largest  producing 
section  on  the  Quibdo  side  during  the  last  two  years  has  been  along 
the  Quito  River,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Atrato,  the  mining  opera- 
tions being  along  the  headwaters  of  the  river. 

FORMATIONS. 

The  entire  Atrato  and  San  Juan  River  country  is  of  alluvial  forma- 
tion, and  on  account  of  the  broken  nature  of  the  country  and  the 
heavj  vegetation  no  accurate  estimate  can  be  made  of  future  pro- 
duction possibilities.  However,  it  has  been  stated  on  very  good 
authority  that  the  fields  are  much  more  limited  than  has  been  sup- 
posed, and  that,  after  ther  richest  of  the  bars  and  banks  have  been 
exhausted  by  the  crude  operations  of  the  native  miners,  it  will  be  a 
question  of  large  modern  dredgers  well  equipped  to  handle  a  large 
yardage  daily  of  low-grade  gravel  and  sands,  somewhat  along  the 
lines  of  placer  dredging  operations  in  California  during  modern  times. 

METHODS  EMPLOYED  IN  THE  INDUSTRY. 

The  total  population  (principally  Negroes,  with  a  few  Indians)  of 
the  Pacific  coast  gold  and  platmum  mining  section  of  Colombia  has 
been  estimated  at  about  100,000  for  the  entire  Choco  Intendency,  of 
which  60  per  cent  are  Negroes,  20  per  cent  mulattoes,  15  per  cent 
Indians,  and  5  per  cent  whites.  This  population  lives  in  the  mining 
towns  along  the  various  rivers — the  largest  being  Quibdo,  with  about 
6,000  people — and  in  shifting  camps  along  the  rivers,  the  population 
being  mostly  of  a  floating  character  and  following  the  mining  work 
according  to  the  season  of  the  year  and  rumors  of  rich  ground,  etc. 
Possibly  not  more  than  6,000  people,  men  and  women,  are  engaged  in 
placer  mining  at  any  one  time,  the  women  working  as  well  as  the  men 
and  handling  the  wooden  *'bateas"  for  washing  the  bedrock  sands 
recovered  and  collected  by  the  men.  The  Negroes  engaged  in  this 
work  seem  to  care  little  for  wealth,  being  mostly  content  to  work 
a  few  weeks  on  a  rich  spot,  and  then  drift  down  below  Quibdo  or  to 
the  coast,  where  plantains  and  fish  are  more  plentiful. 

The  Negro  miners  use  the  canoe  universally  for  transportation  up 
and  down  the  inany  small  streams.  Their  tools  consist  oi  the  wooden 
"batea,"  the  Colombian  substitute  for  the  ''pan"  of  the  American 
placer  miner,  and  a  species  of  iron  or  steel  hoe  called  the  "  almocafre," 
about  4  inches  wide  and  tapering  in  a  curve  to  a  sharp  point  inward 
toward  the  operator  and  carrying  a  wooden  handle  about  18  inches 
long.  This  tool,  usually  made  by  local  blacksmiths,  costs  from  $0.80 
to  $2,  depending  upon  whether  it  is  made  of  iron  or  steel.  The 
"barra"  is  also  used,  this  being  a  drill  steel  bar,  usually  l\  inches 
in  diameter,  32  to  40  inches  long,  sharpened  to  a  point  at  one  end, 
with  a  wide  wedge  at  the  other,  and  used  in  place  of  the  pick.     When 


108     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAIi  HANDBOOK^ 

the  bar  is  of  iron  with  a  steel  point  it  costs  $1.20  to  $2,  but  if  of  pure 
steel  (drill  steel)  the  cost  is  as  high  as  $3  in  the  mining  regions.  The 
wooden  "bateas"  are  made  locally,  and  cost  $1  to  $2  each,  the 
trading  medium  of  the  entire  mining  section  being  silver  coin,  and 
not  the  currency  of  the  country. 

The  Negroes  are  very  expert  in  following  the  rivers  and  locating 
gravel  banKS,  etc.,  and  alluvial  deposits.  It  rains  a  great  deal  through- 
out the  Atrato  and  San  Juan  regions,  rains  being  almost  incessant.  As 
heavy  rainfall  is  registered  in  this  region  as  anywhere  in  the  Tropics. 
As  a  usual  thing,  pits  are  dug  in  the  banks  for  the  collection  of  water 
for  washing  banks,  and  even  diving  is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of 
bringing  up  rich  sands  from  the  pockets  in  the  rock  of  the  stream 
beds.  After  a  few  weeks'  work  on  rich  ground  the  men  retire  down 
the  river  or  to  the  coast  until  another  season. 

FOREIGN  DREDGING  COMPANIES. 

French,  English,  and  American  mining  companies  have  invaded 
this  region,  and  several  successful  dredgers  are  being  operated.  The 
principal  companies  are  the  South  American  Gold  &  Platinum  Co., 
on  the  Condoto  River;  the  Paris-Transvaal  Gold  Mines  (Ltd.)  (con- 
solidated with  the  Consolidated  Colombian  Platinum  &  Gold  Mines, 
Ltd.),  on  the  Guapi  River  and  the  Opogodo  River;  and  the  Anglo- 
Colombian  Development  Co.,  on  the  Condoto  River. 

The  combination  of  the  Paris-Transvaal  Gold  Mines  (Ltd.)  and  the 
Consolidated  Colombian  Platinum  &  Gold  Mines  (Ltd.)  is  known  as 
the  British  Platinum  &  Gold  Mines  Corporation.  This  company  has 
a  new  capital  of  £250,000,  of  which  150,000  shares  were  sold  to  the 
public.  It  is  reported  that  prospecting  done  in  the  neighborhood  of 
the  Opogodo  River  places  an  estimate  of  £2,000,000  on  the  platinum 
and  gold  contained  m  the  new  ground  acquired.  The  united  dredg- 
ing properties  of  the  two  companies  named  cover  19  square  miles  of 
mineral-bearing  placer  ground. 

The  Anglo-Colombian  Development  Co.,  of  New  York,  is  a  com- 
bination of  English  and  American  interests,  and  has  installed  the 
latest  electrically  operated  dredge  at  "Antioquia." 

The  large  mining  companies  acquire  large  holdings  of  mineral 
ground,  and  this  is  thoroughly  prospected  by  means  of  drilling,  so 
that  the  production  of  platinum  and  gold  per  cubic  yard  can  be 
accurately  estimated  in  advance. 

These  companies  are  also  establishing  modem  and  sanitary  camps 
where  their  dredgers  are  in  operation  and  are  doing  much  toward 
making  the  climate  safe  for  tne  white  man.  The  greatest  benefit 
has  been  derived  from  cutting  away  the  jungle  and  undergrowth  over 
large  areas  around  the  camps,  and  thereby  decreasing  the  numbers 
of  fever  mosquitoes.  In  the  past  there  have  been  several  ill-advised 
attempts  to  take  large  dredgers  up  the  Atrato  River,  and  entire 
crews  nave  died  of  the  fevers  in  a  tew  months'  time.  One  dredger 
crew  lost  all  but  one  man  (a  foreigner) . 

TRADING  METHODS  AND  PRICES. 

The  bulk  of  the  gold  and  platinum  produced  by  the  native  miners 
is  traded  for  by  the  branch  houses  of  the  merchant  firms  of  Cartagena 
and  Buenaventura,  the  former  port  exporting  the  largest  amounts  of 


MINING. 


109 


both  metals.  The  Syrian  merchants  of  Cartagena  have  large  branch 
stores  in  Quibdo,  latmina,  Baudo,  Tado,  and  other  places,  and  general 
merchandise  to  the  value  of  approximately  $1,000,000  per  year,  con- 
sisting principally  (in  the  ratio  of  about  60  per  cent)  oi  cheap  cotton 
goods,  is  imported  through  Cartagena  and  Buenaventura  into  the 
mining  region  and  used  for  trading  for  gold  and  platinum.  (See 
p.  225.)  These  traders  pay  about  30  per  cent  of  the  New  York 
quotation  on  platinum,  deducting  also  about  10  per  cent  for  impurities 
contained  in  the  metal.  With  the  platinum  there  is  often  contained 
certain  amounts  of  other  rare  metals,  such  as  iridium,  palladium, 
osmiridium,  etc.,  for  which  percentages  of  excess  value  are  paid  by 
the  purchasers  in  the  United  States  (sometimes  as  high  as  25  per  cent 
over  the  value  of  the  platinum) ,  and  this  extra  value  is  an  additional 
profit  for  the  traders. 

Mining  activities  in  Colombia  have  been  greatly  stimulated  by  the 
rapidly  advancing  prices  paid  for  platinum.     Before  the  war  prices 
averaged  around  $45  an  ounce  (troy)  in  New  York,  as  compared  with 
the  normal  price  of  $20  for  gold.     From  the  latter  part  of  1915  to 
the  present  time  platinum  prices  have  fluctuated  between  $55  and 
$105  an  ounce.     The  following  are  the  average  prices  since  1906 
1906,  $28.04;  1907,  $28.18;  1908,  $22.85;  1909,  $24.83;  1910,  $32.70 
1911,  $43.12;  1912,  $45.55;  1913,  $44.88;  1914,  $45.06;  1915,  $49.63 
1916,  $83.40;  1917,  $105;  1918,  $105;  1919,  $164;  1920  (to  March), 
$156. 

SHIPMENTS  OF  PLATINUM  TO  UNITED  STATES. 

During  the  three  years  preceding  the  war,  imports  to  the  United 
States  of  platinum,  in  nuggets,  bars,  etc.,  all  crude  metal,  amounted 
to  100,000  to  120,000  ounces  per  year,  of  which  Colombia  furnished 
only  about  10  per  cent.  In. recent  years  the  figures  have  been  as 
follows : 


Years. 

Total  imports  of 
platinum. 

Imports  from 
Colombia. 

Troy 
ounces. 

Value. 

Troy 
ounces. 

Value. 

Fiscal  year  1915 

40,538 
89,656 
30,107 
54,962 
51,550 

$1,597,124 
4,205,342 
2,100,921 
4,949,755 
5,229,309 

13,601 
25,588 
21,278 
30,543 
26,046 

1470,938 
1,473,553 

1,536,422 

Fiscal  Year  1917 

Calendar  vear  1918 

2,630,614 
2,303,211 

Calendar  vear  1919 .   . 

The  present  imports  of  platinum  to  the  United  States  from  Colom- 
bia represent  almost  the  total  production  of  the  latter  country. 

Platinum  possesses  extraordinary  ductility,  and  will  not  tarnish 
(oxidize).  It  is  used  in  the  manuiacture  of  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  chemical  and  physical  apparatus,  electrical  equipment  (ignition 
points),  and  for  nitrogen  fixation,  jewelry,  dental  worK,  etc. 

COAL  DEPOSITS. 

Coal  is  found  in  almost  every  region  of  Colombia.  There  are  coal 
deposits  in  the  Goajira  Peninsula  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains, 
in  the  extreme  northeastern  part  of  the  country;  there  are  coal 


110     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

deposits  near  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  in  the  extreme  western  region ;  there 
are  large  beds  of  coal  alon^  the  San  Jorge  River  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Department  of  Bolivar;  there  are  coal  deposits  all  along  the 
Eastern  Cordillera  in  the  Bogota  region;  coal  exists  in  large  quantities 
near  Medellin  (Amaga  fields)  in  Antioquia;  the  coal  fields  of  Cali  in 
the  Cauca  Valley  are  very  extensive  and  well  known ;  coal  is  also  found 
much  farther  south,  west  of  Popayan;  and  there  are  rumors  of  large 
veins  of  coal  to  the  west  of  Antioquia  in  the  Western  Cordillera,  near 
the  town  of  Urrao,  on  the  proposed  route  of  a  railway  to  run  from 
Medellin  to  a  new  seaport  on  tne  Pacific. 

The  coal  beds  of  the  interior  are  not  well  placed  for  export,  but 
there  are  four  known  fields  from  which  coal  could  be  advantageously 
exported  to  the  coaling  ports  of  the  West  Indies  and  to  the  Panama 
Canal : 

(a)  The  deposits  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  near  the  towns  pf  Cerre- 
jon,  Jagiva,  and  Conejo,  lying  a  little  southeast  of  the  main  body  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada,  within  easy  rail  distance  of  undeveloped  deep-water 
harbors  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  such  as  Bahia  Honda  and  El  Portito, 
and  capable  of  being  reached  by  the  construction  of  a  light  railway 
not  more  than  120  miles  in  length,  over  fairly  level  ground.  (See 
description  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  p.  29.) 

(6)  The  deposits  near  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  which  are  located  in  a 
wild,  very  tropical  territory,  and  are  undeveloped  and  little  known 
at  the  present  time,  except  for  the  fact  that  they  probably  belong  to 
the  formation  ex'tending  along  the  Western  Range  of  the  Andes, 
which  includes  the  veins  found  near  Cali  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  much 
farther  south. 

(c)  The  deposits  of  the  San  Jorge  River,  in  southern  Bolivar, 
reached  now  by  shallow-draft  river  steamer  from  the  Magdalena  via 
Ban'anquilla.  These  had  attracted  'the  attention  of  American 
engineers  interested  in  supplying  coal  for  railwavs  and  shipping  on 
the  Caribbean  coast.  They  are  easily  accessible  bv  means  of  a  light 
railway  from  Cartagena,  over  a  fairly  level,  thougn  tropical  country 
and  not  more  than  120  miles  long. 

(d)  The  fields  of  the  Cauca  Valley,  near  the  city  of  Cali,  distant  by 
rail  (over  the  Pacific  Railway)  200  kilometers  or  more,  according  to 
location,  from  the  port  of  Buenaventura,  which  is  within  400  miles 
of  the  Panama  Canal  by  water.  So  far  as  is  known  at  present,  the 
Cali  coal  beds  are  the  largest,  of  the  best  quality,  and  the  most 
accessible  for  immediate  export  in  large  quantities.  (For  complete 
description,  see  p.  276.) 

The  approximate  distance  by  water  from  the  loading  port  for  the 
Goajira  coal  to  the  Panama  Canal  is  500  miles  across  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  from  the  Uraba  fields  less  than  200  miles  by  sea  to  Colon. 

It  is  impossible  to  give  any  accurate  description  of  the  many  coal 
fields  of  Colombia  or  any  estimate  of  the  probable  extent  of  the 
various  deposits,  but  the  country  has  in  its  coal  a  valuable  asset, 
almost  untouched  and  very  little  explored  or  even  known.  The  few 
coal  mines  that  have  been  opened  are  all  worked  superficially  and  by 
very  crude  methods,  to  supply  the  small  local  demand  and  for  the 
short  lines  of  railways  in  then*  respective  regions.  Only  one  attempt 
has  been  made  to  export  coal  from  the  country.  In  1919,  about 
3,000  tons  of  coal  were  shipped  from  the  Cali  fields  to  Chile  and 
Panama  as  an  experiment.     This  failed  to  meet  with  the  desired 


MINING.  Ill 

results  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  coal  had  to  be  mined  by  hand 
in  a  very  crude  manner,  packed  down  to  the  railway  in  two-wheeled 
carts  and  on  pack  mules,  loaded  by  hand  in  sacks,  and  handled  in 
the  same  manner  at  Buenaventura  into  lighters,  from  which  it  was 
finally  transferred  to  ship's  deck,  there  being,  at  the  time,  no  dock  at 
Buenaventura  of  any  kind. 

No  geological  survey  of  the  Colombian  coal  fields  has  ever  been 
made.  One  has  recently  been  ordered  hj  the  Government  but  held 
in  abeyance  on  account  of  fiscal  difficulties.  The  known  coal  meas- 
ures of  Colombia  are  as  follows : 

1.  Bogota  coal  fields. 

2.  Tequendama,  south  of  Bogota. 

3.  Zipacon,  west  of  Bogota. 

4.  Subachoque,  near  Pradera  iron  mines,  north  of  Bogota, 

5.  Cajica,  near  Government-owned  salt  mines  at  Yapaquira 
(Zipaquu-a) . 

6.  Nemocon  mines,  near  Nemocon. 

7.  Sequilla  and  Guatativa  (Bogota  region) . 

8.  Suebca  and  Pacho  iron  mines  and  coal  deposits,  northwest  of 
Bogota. 

9.  Outcroppings  at  Ubate,  Fuquene,  and  Velez,  in  Santander, 
northwest  of  Bogota. 

10.  Tunja,  Sogamoso,  Santa  Rosa,  and  Gambita,  in  Boyaca,  north 
of  Bogota. 

1 1 .  Department  of  Santander,  farther  north  (little  known) . 

12.  Magdalena  River  Valley. 

13.  San  Jorge  River  in  Bolivar. 

14.  Cerreion,  Conejos,  etc.,  in  Valle  Dupar  region,  northeast. 

15.  Medellin  and  Amaga  in  Antioquia. 

16.  Urrao  district,  west  of  Medellin,  in  western  Cordillera. 

17.  Gulf  of  Uraba. 

18.  Cauca  Valley  (known  as  the  Call  fields). 

19.  West  of  Popayan. 

20.  Santa  Marta  district. 

The  deposits  named  under  Nos.  1  to  11  are  undoubtedly  included  in 
the  formation  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  coal  being  known  to  exist  for  a 
distance  of  300  miles  north  and  south  of  Bogota,  which  lies  near  the 
Eastern  Range  of  the  Colombian  Andine  mountain  system.  In  this 
same  formation  it  is  possible  that  the  deposits  of  Cerrejon,  etc.  (No. 
14),  in  the  territory  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas,  in  the  extreme  north- 
eastern part  of  the  country,  may  be  included. 

Nos.  12  and  13,  lying  west  of  the  Magdalena  River,  are  included  in 
the  formation  of  the  Central  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  and  are  un- 
doubtedly (judging  from  more  recent  knowledge  of  the  coal  forma- 
tions of  the  country)  continuations  of  the  fields  found  at  Amaga, 
near  Medellin. 

Nos.  16,  17,  18,  and  19  belong  to  the  Western  Cordillera  formation, 
while  those  of  the  Santa  Marta  district  can  not  be  placed  easily,  since 
Uttle  is  known  about  them ;  perhaps  they  are  connected  in  some  way 
with  the  fields  known  to  exist  farther  to  the  southeast  at  Cerrejon  and 
Conejos. 

All  the  coal  beds  in  Colombia  belong  to  the  post  Cretaceous  age 
and  are  thought  to  underlie  extensive  areas.  The  formation  is  all 
coarse  sandstone  and  clay  shale  interbedded  with  partings  of  slate. 


112     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  coal  is  a,  light  bituminous,  usually  with  a  very  high  percentage  of 
volatile  matter.  Throe  seams  occur,  varying  in  tnickness  from  0.6  to 
2.2  meters  (meter  =  3.28  feet)  each.  The  three  seams  are  very  well 
defined  in  the  Bogota  region  but  are  not  so  plain  in  the  Cali  region, 
where  only  two  main  veins  or  strata  are  proven.  The  average  width 
in  the  aggregate  is  2  meters,  though  in  the  Cali  district  there  are  places 
where  one  vein  measures  22  feet  in  thickness. 

The  estimated  reserve  supply  of  Colombia  is  said  to  be  27,000,000 
tons. 

Investigations  by  foreign  engineers,  which  were  supported  by  an 
American  coal  expert  who  visited  the  region  of  Cali  in  1914,  led  to 
the  belief  that  the  Cali  fields  occupy  a  great  area  beneath  the  floor  of 
the  valley,  the  statement  being  made  that  drillings  in  the  floor  of  the 
valley  would  show  underlying  beds  of  very  good  coal.  (See  p.  276.) 
This  theory  of  the  formation  in  that  section  was  subsequently  proven 
erroneous  when  extensive  drilling  was  done  in  the  Cali  region  bv 
American  engineers  during  1919.  No  coal  was  found  even  at  a  dcptn 
of  300  feet  below  the  lowest  point  in  the  Cauca  Valley  near  Cali,  and 
an  exhaustive  examination  of  the  entire  district  furnished  an  entirely 
new  theory  regarding  the  coal  formations,  which  would  also  seem  to 
apply  (by  reason  of  their  great  similarity)  to  all  the  coal  deposits  of 
the  country,  including  those  of  the  Bogota  region  as  well  as  those  of 
Amaga  and  the  San  Jorge  River  in  the  line  of  the  Central  Cordillera. 
This  new  theory  of  the  coal  formation  of  Colombia  is  that  the  coal 
veins  were  originally  formed  horizontally  at  a  considerable  elevation 
above  the  present  floors  of  the  valleys,  which  have  been  cut  away  by 
erosion,  breaking  down  the  coal  veins,  which  are  now  seen  in  out- 
cropping to  be  lying  in  almost  vertical  positions,  but  that  the  main 
veins  lie  in  curves,  or  folds,  dipping  into  the  Cordilleras  on  either  side 
of  the  valleys,  all  surface  indications  being  much  broken  by  volcanic 
action  and  affected  by  heat  and  other  factors. 

In  1916  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  handed  down  a  decision  regard- 
ing titles  and  rights  of  coal  lands  to  the  effect  that  coal  mines  do  not 
come  under  the  provisions  of  the  Mining  Code  laws  regarding  such 
minerals  as  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  platinum  and  are  not  denounce- 
able  under  the  Mining  Coae.  Owners  of  lands  adjudicated  prior  to 
the  land  laws  of  October  26,  1873,  own  the  subsoil  and  the  minerals 
found  therein  such  as  coal,  asphalt,  petroleum,  lead,  zinc,  etc.  The 
ownership  of  lands  which  have  been  smce  adjudicated  by  the  Govern- 
ment does  not  carry  ownership  of  the  subsoil,  and  coal  found  therein 
can  be  worked  only  with  the  consent  of  the  Government.  The 
Government  also  owns  and  controls  the  coal  found  on  all  public  lands 
(baldios). 

For  a  more  detailed  description  of  the  various  coal  fields  of  the 
country,  including  analysis  of  the  coal,  extent  of  mines,  tonnage  con- 
sumption, and  local  uses,  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  sections 
on  coal  in  the  various  commercial-district  reports  beginning  on  page 
185.  See  also  Special  Agents  Series  No.  160,  Construction  Materials 
and  Machinery  m  Colombia,"  page  21. 


MINING. 


113 


MINERAL  EXPORTS  FROM  COLOMBU  AS  A  WHOLE. 

The  tables  below  are  presented  in  order  to  enable  the  reader  to 
compare  the  metal  exports  of  Colombia  during  the  prewar  period 
and  during  the  war.  The  first  table  shows  the  metals  exported,  by 
countries,  in  1911  (includes  gold  and  platinum) : 

[Kilo=2.2(>16  pounds;  Colombian  dollar= $0.9733.] 


Countries  of  destination. 


France 

Germany 

Panama 

Spain 

United  Kingdom 


Kilos. 


14,469 

77,481 

1,480 

1,800 

1, 479, 581 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

574,  329 

45,728 

415 

270 

1, 872, 334 


Countries  of  destination. 


United  States . . 
Other  countries 

Total 


Kilos. 


158,236 
4,175 


1,737,222 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
2,008,545 
6,140 


4, 507, 761 


During  1916  the  mineral  exports  from  Colombia  were  as  follows 
(values  in  Colombian  gold  dollars  and  at  average  schedules  of  prices) : 


By  customhouses. 


Barranquilla 

Buenaventura 

Cartagena 

Cucuta  (via  Maracaibo). 

Ipiales 

Meta 

Rio  Hacha 

Santa  Marta 

Tiunaco 


Total. 


Kilos. 


809, 498 

727 

28,198 


1,520 
'"539 


773 


841,255 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

4, 703, 176 

724, 158 

1,617,182 


52 
'162 


244,400 


7, 289, 070 


By  countries  of  destination. 


Dutch  East  Indies  1 

Ecuador  2 

France 

Italy 

Panama'- : 

United  Kingdom . . 

United  States 

Other  countries 

Total 


Kilos. 


841, 255 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

539 

102 

.     1,520 

52 

3,040 

1,700 

8 

3,860 

92 

54,500 

717,568 

365,170 

118, 459 

6,863,682 

29 

4 

7, 289, 070 


1  Salt  and  kaolin  from  the  Goajira  Peninsula. 

'  Via  Ipiales. 

'  Platinum  from  Cartagena,  mined  in  the  Atrato  region. 


The  above  exports  in  1916  were  made  up  of  the  following  articles 
listed  under  "Mineral  products": 


Kinds. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Kinds. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Mineral  waters 

520 
1,370 

Colombian 
dollars. 

50 

28 

70 

7,260 

5,972 

43 

3 

4, 381,  889 

835, 921 

77,644 

18,600 

30 

5 

3,681 

827 

400 

150 

753,098 

24,630 

Colombian 
dollars. 
13,830 

Sulphur 

i  Gold  and  silver  mixed  (bars) 
Silver  in  bars 

1,000 

Coal 

180, 180 

Copper 

27,456 

7,174 

92 

57 

11,726 

1,784 

8,067 

36 

Platinum 

1, 635,  565 

Concentrates  (gold,  etc.) 

stone  and  clay 

4 

Iron  ore 

Petroleum 

24 

Samples  of  ores 

Mineral  earth 

125,  987 

Gold  in  bars 

Zinc 

5.000 

• 
Total 

841,255 

7, 289, 070 

Gold,  broken 

During  1918  the  production  of  gold  was  curtailed  on  account  of 
war  conditions,  but  the  amount  of  platinum  exported  increased  as 
compared  with  the  Colombian  Government  returns  for  1916.  The 
table  below  is  given  to  show  this  comparison  and  how,  while  the 


37558°— 21- 


114     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

quantity  remained  practically  the  same,  the  total  value  of  mineral 
exports  was  reducea  to  5,740,752  Colombian  dollars.  Following  is 
the  list  of  mineral  products  exported  during  1918: 


Kinds. 


Mineral  waters 

Asl)estos 

Sulphur 

Asphaltum 

Coali 

Copper 

Iron 

Gold  in  bars... 

Gold  dust 

Gold  amalcam. 
Gold  niiRRCts. . 
Platinum 


Kilos. 


Value. 


Colojnbian 

dottars. 

98 

13 

344 

60 

925 

28 

125 

11 

545,360 

8,087 

4,798 

7,526 

40,275 

12,000 

4,724 

1,894,445 

1,133 

615, 124 

15 

8,300 

15 

4,300 

620 

1,303,436 

Kinds. 


Platinum  dust 

Silver  in  hars 

Silver  with  gold... 

Lead 

Iron  ore 

Petroleum 

Gold  and  .silver  ore 
Mining  samples. . . 
Mineral  earth 

Total 


Kilos. 


487 

3,534 

136 

50 

105 

680 

540 

20,004 

218,821 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollar  1. 

1,329,25.'5 

469,967 

23,066 

1,800 

50 

70 

5,923 

15,603 

40,798 


842,789  I      5,740,752 


» Coal  from  the  Call  fields,  exported  from  Buenaventura  to  Chile  as  an  experiment;  also  to  Panama^ 

The  mineral  products  listed  above  were  distributed  as  follows : 


Countries  of  destination . 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Countries  of  destination. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

France 

64 

208,460 

1,000 

95,506 

Colombian 

dollars. 

57,750 

2,607 

30 

5,624,893 

Other  countries 

537,759 

Colombian 
dollars. 
55,472 

Total 

842,789 

5,740,752 

United  States 

Figures  for  the  production  of  gold  and  platinum  in  Colombia 
during  pre-war  years  may  be  quoted  as  follows  from  the  Memoria 
del  Mmistro  de  Hacienda : 


Gold. 

Platinum. 

Years. 

KUos. 

Value. 

KUw. 

Value. 

1912 

19,642 
10,819 

Colombian 
dollar. 1. 
6,6;J4,913 
4,100,114 

875 
470 

Colombian 
dollar  «. 
504, 188 

1913 

5S3,9»4 

Declared  exports  of  precious  metals  from  Colombia  to  the  United 
States  during  recent  years,  as  recorded  by  American  consular  officers, 
have  been  as  follows: 


KInd.s. 

• 

1915 

1916 

1917 

1018 

'  lOtO 

Gold: 

Bullion 

$903,441 

17.909 

501,302 

$2,009,079 

57,862 

1,456,684 

1,322 
1,514 

$1,926,3.32 

4-1,302 

2,146,088 

25,135 

$1,616,159 

30,020 

2,759,396 

12,298 

$127,451 

Dust 

Platinum 

2,682,950 

Silver: 

Bullion 

51,961 

Ore 

7,242 

MINING. 


115 


METAL  EXPORTS  FROM  BARRANQUILLA. 

Figures  compiled  by  the  Colombian  Govermnent  custombouse  at 
Barranquilla  on  December  10,  1919,  showed  that  the  total  value  of 
precious  metals  exported  through  Barranquilla  in  1917  was  4,022,947 
Colombian  dollars,  made  up  as  follows: 

Colombian  dollars. 

Gold  and  platinum  precipitates  (concentrates) 3, 555,  557 

Gold,  in  dust  and  nuggets 202,  552 

Gold  coin 232, 512 

Silver,  in  bars 29, 937 

Silver  coin 2, 389 

Total 4, 022, 947 

The  gold  coin  was  exported  as  follows:  To  Spain,  149,064  dollars; 
to  the  United  States,  83,448  dollars. 

The  area  of  production  of  the  above  amounts  is  mainly  that  of  the 
vein  and  placer  mines  of  Antioquia  in  the  Nechi-Zaragoza  district. 
Farther  to  the  west,  a  small  amount  of  platinum  is  found  mixed 
with  the  gold  in  the  placers,  this  being  true  more  of  the  Caceres 
region  than  farther  east  around  the  Nechi  River.  The  silver  came 
from  the  Frias  mines  and  the  surrounding  region,  being  shipped  down 
the  Magdalena  River  for  export. 

According  to  the  returns  of  the  American  consulate  at  Barranquilla, 
the  United  States  has  received  from  that  port  in  recent  years  the 
following  amounts  of  precious  metals: 


Kinds. 

1916 

1917 

1918 

1919 

1920 

Gold: 

Bullion 

$1,598,639 

$1,794,534 
44,302 
38,900 
17,261 
25, 135 
299 

$1,085,174 
30,020 

$21,899 

$543,322 

Dust 

48,255 

1,322 

12,298 
3,889 

41,787 
2,573 

118,163 

3,183 

The  port  of  Barranquilla  exports  the  gold  and  silver  from  the  mines 
of  the  interior  in  Antioquia,  etc.  Cartagena  ships  the  product  of 
the  Atrato  River  and  its  tributaries,  and  Buenaventura  that  of  the 
San  Juan  River  and  its  tributaries.  Tumaco  exports  the  product 
of  the  Barbacoas  region  on  the  Patia  River  and  its  tributaries.  The 
mining  products  from  farther  south,  around  Pasto,  find  their  way  out 
of  the  country  via  Ecuador  (Quito). 

METAL  EXPORTS  FROM  CARTAGENA. 

The  exports  of  precious  metals  from  Cartagena  in  the  year  1914, 
as  given  by  the  American  consulate,  were  as  lollows: 


Kinds. 

France. 

Germany. 

Great. 
Britain. 

United 
States. 

Gold: 

Bars 

$6,003 
3,000 

$257,204 

91,038 

8,300 

8248  111 

Dust 

$5,660 

330,457 
6  545 

Coin 

Gold  and  platinum 

64,009 

Gold  and  silver  coin 

64  501 

Gold  and  silver  ore 

39, 391 

3,224 

19,061 
15,825 

310  194 

Silver: 

Bars 

865 
4,400 

7,605 

Coin 

116     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

In  recent  years   the   declared  exports   of   precious  metals   from 
Cartagena  to  the  United  States  have  been: 


Kinds. 

1916 

1916 

Kinds. 

1917 

1918 

1919 

Gold: 

Cyanido  precipitates 

$17,909 

352,342 

11,046 

S9,606 

320,292 

1,215,830 

Gold,  concentrates,  etc . . 
Platinum 

$256,366 
1,439,505 

$346,341 

1,325,481 

389,059 

9,508 

26,568 

$38,882 
1,352,894 

Sliver  and  gold  bars 

Platinum 

Silver  currency 

33,3-i5 
29,882 

Silver,  mineral  of. 

22,933 

METAL  EXPORTS  FROM  BUENATENTURA  AND  TUMACO. 

In  1920  Buenaventura  exported  3,629  ounces  of  gold  to  the  United 
States,  valued  at  $258,095,  and  12,089  ounces  of  platinum,  valued  at 
$1,088,516,  according  to  the  figures  of  the  American  consular  agency. 

The  exports  of  gold  from  Tumaco  in  1911,  a  prewar  year,  were 
valued  at  381,892  Colombian  dollars.  In  1916  tliis  port's  mineral 
exports  amounted  to  244,398  dollars  and  in  1918  to  202,776  dollars. 
There  has  been  a  steady  decrease  in  the  amount  of  placer  gold  exported 
from  Tumaco,  while  the  exports  of  platinum  and  gold  from  Buena- 
ventura have  increased  on  account  of  the  dredging  activities  of  the 
large  companies  using  modem  methods  and  the  stimulation  of  the 
platinum  industry  as  a  result  of  the  high  prices  obtained  during  and 
after  the  war. 

MINING  LAWS— POSSESSION  OF  CLAIMS  AND  TITLES. 

GENERAL  PROVISIONS. 

On  pa^es  100  and  101  there  is  given  a  synopsis  of  the  development 
of  the  mining  laws  of  Colombia. 

An  executive  decree  in  1916  restricted  the  granting  of  conces- 
sions of  mining  lands  in  the  national  lands;  concessions  were 
limited  to  an  area  of  3.86  square  miles,  being  granted  for, 25-year 
periods  for  placer  mines  and  alluvial  formations.  Within  18  months 
from  the  date  of  the  approval  of  his  contract  with  the  Government, 
the  concessionaire  must  file  with  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  the 
precise  location  of  the  claim  or  claims,  plans  of  the  workings,  and 
samples  of  the  minerals  found  therein.  A  period,  in  addition  to  the 
18  months,  is  allowed  in  which  to  begin  active  mining  operations. 

The  Government  claims  the  right  to  15  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts 
of  the  workings  and  authorizes  the  concessionaire  to  erect  all  the 
buildings  necessary  and  to  construct  roads,  light  railways,  cableways, 
telegraph  and  telephone  lines,  etc.,  that  may  be  found  necessary  for 
the  exploitation  of  the  property.  It  is  under  such  a  contract  that 
the  American  company,  tne  Anglo-Colombian  Development  Co., 
previously  mentioned,  is  operating  placer  ground  in  tne  Condoto 
River  region.  Inspection  and  collection  are  performed  by  an  ap- 
pointed Government  agent,  who  visits  all  mining  properties  operating 
under  these  new  contracts. 

According  to  the  prescriptions  that  regulate  the  exploitation  and 
ownership  of  mines  (Mining  and  Fiscal  Codes),  all  gold,  platinum, 
silver,  and  copper  mines  and  mines  of  precious  stones  belong  to  the 
State  in  eminent  domain,  irrespective  of  the  ownership  of  the  land 
where  such  mines  are  located,  but  they  may  be  acquired  as  to  posses- 


MINING.  117 

sion  and  ownership,  by  both  Colombian  and  foreign  citizens,  by  the 
legal  '^ denouncement"  (location)  and  process  in  each  case.  (Note: 
A  decree  of  Aug.  17,  1916,  prohibited  the  location  of  mines  in  Colom- 
bia by  foreigners  unless  they  could  show  reciprocal  privileges  for 
Colombians  in  their  country.) 

Americans  wishing  to  acquire  mining  land  by  denouncement  in 
Colombia  are  obliged  to  have  the  location  made  for  them  by  trusted 
Colombians  and  transfer  made  to  them  later,  since  the  law  does  not 
prohibit  native  citizens  from  transferring  mining  property  to  foreigners 
if  the  permission  of  the  Government  is  secured  previously. 

During  the  period  from  1910  to  1914  there  were  3,821  mining 
claims,  chiefly  gold  mines,  located  in  Colombia,  and  the  Government 
granted  1,018  titles  to  mines  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  There  are 
records  of  18,386  mines  in  the  country,  but  their  exploitation  is  on  a 
scale  very  inferior  to  their  merits  as  mineral  deposits. 

In  his  annual  report  for  1918,  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  stated 
that,  although  the  total  export  of  precious  metals  from  the  country 
reached  nearly  $6,000,000  annually,  the  net  product  for  the  National 
Treasury  was  only  $18,000,  and  it  was  recommended  that  mining  con- 
tributions and  taxes  be  increased  and  new  legislation  carried  through 
to  correct  this  condition.  A  presidential  decree  of  July  9,  1918,  pro- 
hibits the  adjudication  of  placer  or  alluvial  mines  in  the  beds  of 
navigable  streams.  A  special  permit  from  the  Minister  of  Public 
Works  is  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  permission  to  work  placer 
ground  in  the  bed  of  a  navigable  stream.  An  examination  by  Govern- 
ment engineers  has  to  be  made  in  each  case.  In  all  legislation  per- 
taining to  mining  there  seems  a  decided  tendency  toward  Government 
control. 

MINES  IN  GOVERNMENT  LANDS. 

All  mines  located  on  Government  lands  are  also  denounceable, 
whether  they  are  metal-bearing  or  of  any  other  substance  with  the 
exception  of  coal,  asphaltum,  crude  oil,  sulphur,  guano  deposits,  and 
rock  salt  and  salt  springs  above  6  per  cent  of  saturation,  whose 
ownership  is  reserved  by  the  State,  But  the  exploitation  of  the  latter 
class  of  mines  may  be  effected  by  specific  contracts  with  the  Govern- 
ment, which  need  not  be  submitted  to  Congress  for  approval  pro- 
vided they  contain  the  following  stipulations : 

(a)  That  the  contract  shall  not  be  for  more  than  30  years'  duration. 

(b)  That,  once  the  contract  expires,  all  the  machinery,  appurte- 
nances, and  other  elements  used  in  the  exploitation  or  the  mines 
revert  to  the  Government  free  of  charge. 

(c)  That  the  compensation  to  the  Government  from  the  exploita- 
tion of  the  mines  be  not  less  than  1 5  per  cent  of  the  gross  product. 
(Prior  to  1916  the  minimum  was  placed  at  10  per  cent;  it  was  in- 
creased by  the  decree  of  1916,  which  also  restricted  the  area  formerly 
allowed.) 

MINES  OUTSIDE  OF  GOVERNMENT  LANDS. 

All  mines  that  are  not  of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  or  precious 
stones  and  that  are  found  on  private  lands  belong  to  tne  owner  of  the 
soil  and  their  ownership  and  acquisition  is,  therefore,  a  matter  of 
agreement  with  the  owners  of  the  land.  This  applies  to  owners  of 
lands  adjudicated  by  the  Government  or  held  under  old  titles  prior 
to  the  land  laws  of  October  26,  1873,  under  which  landowners  were 


118     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

fjiven  one  vear  in  which,  to  enjoy  preference  for  the  exploration  and 
ocation  of  mining  claims  on  their  lands,  after  which  any  mineral 
rights  passed  to  the  Government  and  became  liable  to  public  de- 
nouncement for  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  precious  stones,  coal, 
asphalt,  petroleum  (hydrocarbons),  sulphur,  etc. — being  the  property 
of  the  Government  and  as  such  subject  to  special  contracts  witn  the 
Government  for  their  location  and  exploitation.  Lands  held  under 
the  old  Spanish  grant  system  of  titles,  or  adjudicated  bv  the 
Government  prior  to  October  26,  1873,  also  carried  the  ownership  of 
the  subsoil  for  all  minerals,  with  the  above-cited  exceptions  of  gold, 
silver,  platinum,  copper,  and  precious  stones — emerald  mines,  how- 
ever, being  a  Government  monopoly,  like  salt  mines  and  springs  of 
more  than  6  per  cent  saturation. 

A  detailed  explanation  of  the  mining  laws  of  Colombia  and  refer- 
ences to  old  and  present  laws  will  be  found  in  the  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court  of  Justice  in  regard  to  petroleum  land  rights,  dated 
November  21,  1919  (see  p.  134). 

MANNER  OF  ACQUIRING  MINING  PROPERTY  IN  COLOMBIA. 

As  previously  stated,  the  mines  of  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper, 
and  precious  stones  belong  to  the  State  whoever  may  be  the  owner 
of  the  land  where  they  are  located,  but  the  State  cedes  their  possession 
to  any  person,  national  or  foreign  (if  the  latter  can  show  reciprocal 

f)rivileges  in  his  own  country  for  Colombians),  who  may  have  due 
egal  status  and  right  to  acquire  property.  The  proceedings  neces- 
sary for  the  acquisition  of  a  mining  property— that  is  to  say,  for 
obtaining  its  transfer  from  the  Government  to  the  individual  or 
company— are  given  in  detail  in  the  Mining  Code.*  The  steps  are, 
in  snort,  (1)  the  ''denouncement"  (i.  e.,  location)  of  the  property, 
(2)  the  possession,  and  (3)  the  title. 

By  "denouncement"  is  meant  the  notice  given  to  the  political 
authorities  of  the  location  of  the  property  so  located,  the  boundaries, 
and  the  nature  of  the  deposit. 

"Possession"  is  the  actual  location  and  delivery  of  the  mine  field 
or  area  by  survey,  made  in  the  presence  of  an  official  representative. 

"Title"  is  the  legal  document  issued  bv  the  authorities  in  favor 
of  the  locater  (denouncer)  of  the  mine,  wnereby  he  may  attest  and 
prove  that  the  State  has  duly  ceded  the  possession  and  ownership 
of  the  mining  property  in  question. 

The  ownership  of  a  mining  property  is  acquired  definitely  by  title, 
and  it  is  maintained  by  the  pajment  of  the  taxes  on  the  property, 
no  annual  assessment  work  being  necessary;  therefore  any  person 
who  acquires  a  mine  is  protected  m  its  ownership  by  the  authorities 
until  he  abandons  it.  A  mine  is  considered  "  abandoned  "  if  the  owner 
should  fail  to  pay  the  annual  taxes  on  it,  in  which  case  the  property 
automatically  reverts  to  the  Nation  and  the  mine  may  then  be  "de- 
nounced" by  another  perso^.  Twice  annually  lists  oi  new  locations 
and  abandonments  are  published  by  the  gazettes  of  the  departmental 
governments,  and  these  records  are  open  for  public  inspection  at  all 
times. 

Attention  is  called  to  the  point  that  in  the  acquisition  of  mining 
property  located  on  Government  (public)  lands  or  "baldios,"  the 

1  Translation  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  "The  Mining  Laws  of  Colombia,"  Washington,  D.  C,  1912. 


MINING.  119 

locator  of  the  mine  has  a  preferential  right  to  the  adjudication  of  as 
many  as  500  hectares  (1,235  acres)  of  land  contiguous  and  adjacent 
to  the  mine  denounced. 

Alining  property  and  rights  are  declared  public  utilities  so  far  as 
concerns  the  condemnation  of  necessary  lands,  timber  tracts,  water 
rights,  etc.,  necessary  for  the  proper  working  of  the  property. 

TAXES  ON  MINING  PROPERTY. 

Mine  taxes  are  of  two  kinds — (1)  the  taxes  required  to  obtain  the 
adjudication,  and  (2)  the  annual  tax  required  to  keep  the  possession. 
The  first  taxes  are: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Denouncement  of  each  claim  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  platinum,  etc. .  10 
Cost  of  issuing  title 50 

The  second,  or  annual,  taxes  are: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Tax  on  each  "  pertenencia" :  Claim 20 

Tax  on  each  "pertenencia" :  Placer  claim  area 30 

Tax  on  each  "pertenencia":  Precious    stones;    1    square    kilometer 
(0.36  square  mile) 50 

One  "pertenencia"  is  a  rectangle  of  600  by  240  meters  (1,968 
feet  by  787  feet)  according  to  the  Mining  Code. 

LEGAL  EXTENT  OF  CLAIMS. 

The  largest  extent  allowed  for  a  mining  claim  is  as  follows : 

For  a  lode  (vein)  mine,  three  pertenencias,  each  consisting  of  a 
rectangle  600  by  240  meters — givmg  a  total  of  1,800  meters  (5,904 
feet)  in  length  by  240  meters  (787  feet)  in  breadth.  (Art.  2,  Law  292 
and  23  of  Mining  Code.) 

For  an  alluvial  mine  (placer),  the  extent  allowed  is  that  of  a 
square  of  3  kilometers  (9,840  feet)  per  side,  or  else  of  a  rectangle  whose 
base  is  2  kilometers  (6,560  feet)  and  depth  5  kilometers  (16,400 
feet).     (Art.  313,  Law  38  of  1887.) 

For  a  sedimentary  mine  or  blanket  deposit,  the  claim  allowed  is  a 
square  of  2  kilometers  on  each  side.     (Art.  313,  Law  38  of  1887.) 

For  precious  stones,  1  square  kilometer  on  each  side  is  allowed. 
(Art.  2,  Law  38  of  1887.) 

The  claimant  may,  in  each  case,  accept  a  smaller  area;  and  he  may 
also  denounce  a  larger  area,  but  as  a  separate  claim  and  denounce- 
ment, which  may  form  a  continuation  of  the  original  claim. 

To  one  familiar  with  the  mining  laws  of  Mexico  and  of  other 
Latin  American  countries,  it  will  be  at  once  apparent  that  the  mining 
laws  of  Colombia  are  very  similar  to  the  otners  in  character  and 
construction.     For  further  details,  see  page  131,  under  "Petroleum." 


PETROLEUM. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The  existence  of  petroleum  in  Colombia  has  been  known  for  many 
years.  As  in  the  case  of  coal,  there  are  surface  indications  of  oil  in 
many  parts  of  the  country,  and  these  have  been  the  subject  of  ex- 
ploration from  time  to  time,  the  leading  pioneers  being  two  Colombian 
engineers  and  explorers  of  French  descent,  Sr.  Virgnio  do  Barco,  of 
Cucuta,  and  Sr.  Koberto  de  Mares,  of  Bogota.  After  many  years 
of  effort  they  are  destined  to  see  success  result  from  their  early 
efforts,  as  is  proved  by  recent  drillings  of  producing  wells  on  lancls 
which  they  originally  explored  for  petroleum  many  years  ago. 

Cfther  pioneers  in  the  petroleum  industry  of  Colombia  have  been 
Diego  Martinez  &  Co.,  of  Cartagena — wealthy  land  and  cattle  owners 
of  the  Sinu  River  district,  the  largest  merchants  of  Cartagena  in 
both  hardware  and  general  merchandise,  and  the  promoters  of  the 
Cartagena  Oil  Refining  Co.,  established  at  Cartagena  in  1908  with 
an  initial  investment  of  $150,000  (since  increased).  They  were 
instrumental  in  securing  the  cooperation  of  the  Standard  Oil  Co. 
in  1914  for  the  purpose  of  drilling  for  oil  in  the  Sinu  River  district 
southwest  of  Cartagena,  in  which  unsuccessful  attempt  approximately 
$750,000  was  spent  up  to  1916,  when  the  properties  were  abandoned. 
The  Martinez  firm  also  drilled  near  Turbaco,  20  miles  from  Cartagena. 

A  Canadian  company  also  drilled  for  oil  in  the  region  of  Turbo, 
between  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  during  1908  and  1909  on 
lands  held  under  the  concession  known  at  the  time  as  the  "Armella- 
De  Mares  concession,"  which  included  the  lands  of  the  Rcpelon 
concession  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar. 

An  American,  Mr.  J.  W.  Kelley,  organized  a  company  to  take  over 
the  lands  comprising  about  150,000  acres  between  Cartagena  and 
Barranquilla,  and  several  wells  have  been  drilled  near  Puerto  Colom- 
bia. The  work  has  progressed  very  slowly,  but  was  still  being  con- 
tinued in  1919,  when  new  equipment  was  imported. 

Subsequent  to  the  failure  of  the  Diego  Martinez  interests  and  the 
Standard  Oil  Co.,  and  also  of  the  Canadian  company,  to  produce 
oil  in  paying  quantities  in  the  western  Caribbean  coast  region, 
however  favorable  the  surface  indications  were  (and  these  are  many 
and  varied  in  character),  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa., 
took  over  in  1916  the  De  Mares  concession  lying  along  the  Magdalena 
River  and  up  the  Rio  Sogamoso  in  Santanaer  (del  Sur)  and  actively 
engaged  in  prospecting  this  territory  for  oil.  As  a  result,  three 
flowing  wells  of  very  high-grade  petroleum  were  brought  in  30  miles 
from  trie  Magdalena  River  on  the  Rio  Colorado,  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Magdalena  in  Santander,  joining  the  Magdalena  at  the  town 
of  Barranca  Bermeja,  approximately  365  miles  up  the  Magdalena 
from  Barranquilla.  The  estimated  production  of  these  wells,  three 
in  number,  is  6,000  to  8,000  baiTcls  of  35.5°  to  40°  Baum6  cruao  oil 
per  day.     Two  kinds  of  oil  are  found,  of  paraffin  base  and  of  asphalt 

120 


PETROLEUM.  121 

base,  the  latter  not  exceeding  3  per  cent  content  held  in  suspension 
and  burning  clean  in  the  open  air. 

It  is  this  success  by  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  that  has  so  greatly  stimu- 
lated interest  on  the  part  of  American  oil  companies  in  Colombian 
petroleum.  The  entire  country  has  been  actively  prospected  and 
explored  for  the  past  two  years,  and  actual  drilling  operations  are 
soon  to  begin  on  the  lands  of  the  De  Barco  concession  in  the  extreme 
northern  part  of  the  Department  of  Norte  de  Santander  near  the 
boundary  with  Venezuela.  Some  of  the  largest  oil  companies  in  the 
United  States  have  sent  their  men  to  Colombia  during  1918  and  1919, 
others  following  in  1920,  and  some  companies  have  maintained  their 
engineers  on  the  ground  for  a  period  extending  over  two  entire  years. 
Judging  from  the  showing  of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.'s  properties,^  the 
many  surface  indications  in  other  parts  of  the  country,  and  the  in- 
terest being  taken  in  oil  in  Colombia  by  the  large  oil  companies,  it 
may  be  predicted  that  petroleum  presents  a  very  promising  future 
in  Colombia. 

REGIONS  IN  WHICH  OIL  IS  FOUND. 

The  prospective  oil  fields  of  Colombia  may  be  roughly  divided  into 
six  districts: 

(a)  That  of  the  Caribbean  coast  from  Rio  Hacha  to  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba. 

(6)  The  area  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Department  of  Norte  de 
Santander,  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Catatumbo  River,  which  flows 
east  from  Colombian  mountains  into  Lake  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela. 

(c)  The  region  covered  by  the  original  De  Mares  concession,  lying 
in  the  Department  of  Santander  (del  Sur)  east  of  the  Magdalena 
River. 

(d)  The  region  lying  along  the  foothills  of  the  Central  Cordillera 
between  the  headwaters  of  the  Sinu  River  and  the  San  Jorge  River, 
partly  in  Antioquia  and  partly  in  Bolivar. 

(e)  The  region  to  the  west  of  the  Magdalena  River,  along  the 
eastern  sides  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia  and  Tolima,  in  the 
Magdalena  Valley. 

(/)  The  region  west  of  the  city  of  Popayan,  in  the  Department 
of  Cauca,  near  the  Pacific  coast,  as  well  as  the  area  between  Quibdo 
and  Cali. 

There  are  also  rumors  of  surface  indications  of  petroleum  said  to 
exist  west  of  Medellin,  in  the  region  of  the  town  of  TJrrao,  situated 
west  of  the  Cauca  River  Valley  in  the  uplands  of  the  Western 
Cordillera. 

SURFACE  INDICATIONS. 

Surface  indications  are  said  to  be  more  numerous  (because  better 
known,  perhaps)  along  the  Caribbean  coast,  where  the  country  is 
more  level  and  open  and  also  more  accessible  for  observation  and 
exploration.  T'hese  surface  indications  consist  of  gas  emanations. 
The  gas  escapes  through  cracks  in  the  tough  blue  clay  or  clay  shales;  it 
may  be  readily  ignited,  and  in  some  places,  notably  near  the  village  of 
Rotane,  about  25  miles  east  of  Cartagena,  in  the  Repelon  district, 
it  escapes  at  the  rate  of  about  5  cubic  feet  per  minute  or  about  10,000 

1  Recently  purchased  by  the  International  Petroleum  Co.;  see  p.  130. 


122     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

cubic  feet  per  day.  Near  the  town  of  Turbaco,  on  the  railway 
between  Cartagena  and  Calamar,  there  are  a  hundred  or  more  mud 
volcanoes  withm  a  space  of  about  3  acres,  all  emitting  gas;  and  a 
similar  surface  indication  is  seen  near  Monteria  and  near  other  places 
along  the  Sinu  River  farther  to  the  southwest  of  Cartagena. 

Seepages  of  crude  oil  are  found  along  the  line  of  low  hills  that  form 
the  southern  boundary  of  the  level  alluvial  plains  of  Bolivar,  about 
60  miles  south  of  Cartagena  in  an  air  line.  The  natives  have  found 
places  in  the  tropical  jungle  where  they  can  collect  bottles  of  oil  which 
they  sometimes  use  for  lighting  purposes  in  crude  earthenware  lamps. 

In  Antioquia,  near  the  Magdalena  River,  just  south  of  Puerto 
Bewio,  there  is  a  spot  where,  at  times,  crude  petroleum  is  forcibly 
ejected  from  cracks  and  seams  in  the  mud,  spouting  in  a  thin  stream 
to  a  height  of  20  and  more  feet  and  wetting  the  foliage  of  the  trees 
near  by. 

The  same  surface  indications  are  found  inSantander  on  theDe  Mares 
concession,  including  seepages  of  crude  oil  from  between  crevices  in 
shale  and  clay  formations  (surface) ,  and  also  farther  north  in  Norte 
de  Santander  on  the  lands  of  the  De  Barco  concession,  already 
mentioned. 

In  the  valley  of  the  Sinu  there  exist  petroleum  springs  from  which 
the  natives  also  take  small  quantities  of  a  very  high-grade  oil  for  lub- 
ricating purposes  and  for  illumination.  One  spring  produces  oil  of 
sufficiently  high  grade  to  burn  in  a  common  kerosene  lamp. 

Samples  of  very  good  oil  have  been  brought  in  to  Medellin  from 
the  country  around  the  town  of  Urrao,  which  lies  across  the  Cauca 
Valley  west  of  Medellin. 

DIFFICULTIES  OF  PROSPECTING. 

A  review  of  the  general  topography  of  the  country  will  convey  a 
very  good  idea  of  the  difficulties  to  be  encountered  m  exploring  for 
oil  m  Colombia.  The  Caribbean  coast  is  more  open  than  most  other 
regions,  not  being  always  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  growth,  but 
it  is  broken  by  low  hills;  and  the  region  farther  to  the  south,  while 
fairly  level  until  the  hills  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Cauca  are  reached, 
is  covered  with  a  very  heavy  jungle.  This  is  true  also  of  the  entire 
Departments  of  Santander  del  Norte  and  del  Sur.  An  extremely 
tropical  climate  also  prevails,  and  the  topography,  climate,  and  lack 
of  roads  and  other  means  of  transportation  make  exploration  of  the 
land  almost  impossible — ^more  especially  during  the  rainy  season  of 
the  year. 

An  engineer,  or  group  of  engineers,  engaged  in  oil-survey  work 
must  be  prepaied  to  meet  all  sorts  of  conditions  of  life  and  travel — 
using  mules,  canoes,  and  native  packers  on  foot  through  the  jungles 
at  times,  and  always  exposed  to  the  rigors  of  the  tropical  climate, 
pestered  by  poisonous  insects,  and  in  danger  of  venomous  snakes, 
which  are  found  everywhere  in  the  jungles.  A  party  engaged  in 
this  work  in  Colombia  must  be  able  to  endure  fevers,  heat,  and  bad 
food;  and  the  men  who  have  shown  the  way  in  the  past  deserve  the 
greatest  credit  for  their  efforts,  since  they  nave  risked  their  health 
and  even  their  lives.  Thus  far,  in  recent  years,  this  exploration  work 
has  cost  the  lives  of  four  young  engineers,  who  succumbed  to  the 
ravages  of  pernicious  malaria — two  of  them  Americans  in  1919. 


PETROLEUM.  123 

TOPOGRAPHY  AND  GEOLOGY  OF  THE  OIL  DISTRICTS. 

CARIBBEAN  COAST  REGION. 

Briefly,  there  is  this  main  distinction  between  the  topography  of  the 
eastern  and  western  parts  of  the  Caribbean  coast  district,  which  may 
be  roughly  described  as  lying  between  Barranquilla  and  the  Sinu 
River  and  extending  as  far  south  as  the  bend  in  the  Cauca  River  near 
the  boundary  with  Antioquia:  The  eastern  part  consists  of  moun- 
tainous ground,  the  western  part  of  flat  ground  and  low  hills.  In  the 
eastern  part,  the  northern  half  consists  of  rough  and  broken  country, 
rising  at  the  highest  point  to  an  elevation  of  about  1,600  feet  above 
sea  level  and  with  many  other  points  1,200  feet  above  sea  level.  To 
the  south,  this  eastern  part  becomes  more  level  and  less  broken 
(owing  to  the  greater  prevalence  of  shale)  but  still  has  points  as  high 
as  1,000  feet  above  sea  level.  A  main  watershed  runs,  roughly, 
north  and  south  through  this  eastern  tract,  the  western  drainage 
going  directly  to  the  ocean  and  the  eastern  drainage  flowing  down  to 
the  Repelon  Lake  system  and  thence  to  the  sea  at  Cartagena. 

The  western  part  consists  mainly  of  alluvium  lying  about  30  to  40 
feet  above  sea  level,  with  similar  flats  to  the  south,  in  which  soft  shale 
occurs. 

East  of  Cartagena  and  rising  from  the  flats  are  bluffs  of  sandstone 
hills,  up  to  330  feet  above  sea  level — for  example,  the  hills  of  Rosa 
Vieja  and  Arenal,  Punta  Polonia  and  Repelon,  in  which  latter  there 
are  found  shales  lying  below  the  sandstones.  To  the  east  are  the  lakes 
of  Guajaro  and  Repelon,  connected  by  a  series  of  canals  and  lakes. 
From  the  Repelon  Lake  there  runs  a  deep  canal  which  connects  with 
the  Cartagena  Dique.  The  lake  system  and  the  lowlands  around  it 
are  subject  to  overflow  from  the  Magdalena  River  during  the  rainy 
season. 

Southwest  of  Cartagena,  toward  the  Sinu  River,  the  country  is 
level  and  there  is  a  chain  of  swamps  along  the  eastern  bank  of  the 
river,  becoming  larger  as  the  ocean  is  approached.  Low  hills  border 
the  Sinu  at  some  distance  on  the  western  side,  the  geological  formation 
being  the  same  as  that  of  the  hills  east  and  northeast  of  Cartagena 
toward  Barranquilla. 

The  formation  occurring  in  the  Caribbean  region  may  be  classified 
thus,  the  order  of  sequence  being  from  the  uppermost  and  youngest 
beds  downward: 

1.  Alluvium. 

2.  Sandstone  and  pebbly  sandstones,  forming  the  bluff-like  hills. 

3.  An  alternation  of  coarse  and  fine  grained  sandstones  with  blue 
shales,  and'  gray  shales,  flags,  fine-grained  grits,  and  massive  con- 
glomerates. 

Groups  2  and  3  are  probably  conformable  to  each  other  as  part  of 
the  same  succession. 

Group  1. — It  is  sufficient  to  say  of  the  aUuvium  that  the  older 
formations  undoubtedly  exist  below  it. 

Grou/p  2. — The  sandstones  and  conglomerates  are  usually  loose 
and  pebbly,  the  latter  containing  quartz  pebbles  up  to  1^  inches  in 
diameter.  All  sandstones  are  usually  iron  stained  along  the  breaks. 
This  group  is  about  400  feet  thick  and  does  not  carry  any  shale. 
The  dip  of  this  group  is  usually  low,  not  over  15°  and  at  times  7° 
and  even  2°;  in  places  it  is  bent  over  to  dip  in  the  opposite  direction. 


124     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Group  3. — Tho  older  serios  of  mingled  sandstones,  shales,  etc., 
occupy  all  the  mountainous  section  of  the  region,  and  toward  the 
sea  in  the  northern  part  they  are  steeply  inclined,  as  a  rule,  striking 
approximately  north  and  south,  with  dips  of  approximately  40°  to 
the  east  (in  extreme  cases  as  much  as  80°).  Some  of  the  grades  of 
sandstones  throughout  this  district  are  coarse  grained  and  some  fine 
gained,  found  always  interbedded  with  shale  and  fine-grained  flags, 
mterspersed  with  beds  of  heavy  conglomerates.  Limestone  capping 
is  found  still  farther  to  the  east  toward  the  Magdalena  River  and 
the  ocean  in  the  direction  of  Puerto  Colombia.  Limestone  is  not  in 
surface  evidence  in  the  hills  west  of  the  Sinu  River. 

Farther  to  the  south  the  proportion  of  shale  increases  in  these 
rocks  and  the  conglomerates  appear  to  die  out;  the  strike  remains 
the  same,  but  the  average  dip  oecomes  less,  being  about  30°  to  the 
east.  In  the  southwestern  part  of  the  eastern  section  of  this  region, 
the  formation  is  very  much  disturbed  and  may  dip  to  the  west,  and 
this  is  also  true  of  the  formation  of  the  hills  along  the  western  side  of 
the  Sinu. 

From  the  above  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  whole  of  the  forma- 
tions, speaking  generally,  dip  eastward  and  strike  north  and  south. 
This  strike,  farther  south  and  southeast,  swings  around  to  bear  north 
30°  east — a  direction  which  is  plainly  seen  in  the  second  group,  sand- 
stones, etc.,  and  which  is  considered  to  be  followed  by  the  underlying 
mixed  shale  and  sandstone  group,  though  there  are  no  outcrops  to 
prove  this  point. 

Anticlinal  structures  are  noticed  in  the  hills  east  of  Cartagena  and 
in  a  few  instances  near  the  Sinu  to  the  southwest.  To  the  south  the 
anticlinal  formation  disappears  under  the  surface  alluvium.  The 
crest  of  the  anticline  has  been  eroded,  exposing  red  weathered  shale. 
The  anticline  noted  in  this  district  has  a  strike  of  north  30°  east 
(magnetic) . 

For  a  detailed  account  of  the  geology  of  the  Repelon  district  east 
of  Cartagena,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  ''Report  by  Dr.  Andrews 
on  Property  of  Repelon-Colombia,"  namely,  the  Armella-De  Mares 
concession. 

CAUCA-SINU  REGION. 

There  are  no  detailed  data  available  covering  the  formations  that 
exist  in  the  Cauca-Sinu  region,  which  has  been  superficially  inspected 
by  engineers  recently  and  also  penetrated  by  geologists  of  the 
Tropical  Oil  Co.  entermg  from  the  south  (Medellm) . 

Tne  strong  dip  of  the  strata  outcropping  along  the  coast  region 
above  described  and  the  failure  of  the  various  drilling  operations 
near  Cartagena  and  on  the  lower  Sinu  River  to  bring  in  a  flow  of 
oil,  coupled  with  such  reports  of  the  Cauca  hill  country  as  are  known 
at  present,  have  given  rise  to  the  belief  among  petroleum  engineers 
in  Colombia  that  further  drilling  in  the  coast  region,  even  to  great 
depths,  will  not  tap  bodies  of  oil  and  that  drilUng  will  have  to  be 
done  farther  south  along  the  line  of  hills  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Cauca  River. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  that  an  American,  Mr.  Plotts,  of  California, 
associated  with  Sr.  Armclla,  of  Cartagena  (who  was  also  an  associate 
of  Sr.  de  Mares  in  the  Repelon  concession  near  Cartagena),  owns  or 


PETROLEUM.  125 

controls  "two  enormous  properties  in  this  more  southern  region, 
extending  between  the  headwaters  of  the  Sinu  River  on  the  west 
and  the  San  Jorge  River  on  the  east.  Of  these  properties,  500,000 
acres  are  held  under  the  terms  of  an  original  concession  from  the 
Colombian  Government  secured  in  1913  and  still  having  18  years 
to  run,  while  an  additional  700,000  acres  in  the  same  region,  con- 
taining deposits  of  coal  and  indications  of  petroleum,  are  held  in 
fee  and  situated  adjoining  to  and  south  of  the  lands  held  under 
the  terms  of  the  Government  concession,  extending  as  far  south  as 
the  boundary  with  the  Department  of  Antioquia.  The  principal 
outcrops  of  coal  are  located  on  the  San  Jorge  River  near  the 
town  of  Playa  Rica.  This  region  is  thought  to  be  the  source  of  the 
seepages  of  oil  found  on  the  coast,  and  the  near  future  will  see  pros- 
pecting work  done  to  prove  the  existence  of  oil. 

West  of  Medellin,  on  the  western  side  of  the  divide  between  the 
headwaters  of  the  Force  River  and  the  watershed  of  the  Cauca,  the 
formation  changes  very  notably,  a  form  of  blue  diorite  being  observed. 
Indications  of  petroleum  and  samples  of  oil  brought  in  to  Medellin 
come  from  the  Urrao  region  across  the  Cauca  River  and  farther  to 
the  west  in  the  Western  Cordillera. 

Recent  explorations  by  an  American  engineer  prove  the  existence 
of  oil  indications,  similar  to  those  of  the  coast  region,  in  the  district 
west  and  southwest  of  the  city  of  Popayan  in  the  Department  of 
Cauca,  south  of  Cali.  It  is  thought  that  these  indications  are  com- 
parable with  those  of  Ecuador  and  belong  to  the  same  general 
formation  of  the  Western  Andes,  being  connected  with  the  formation 
farther  nortli  in  western  Antioquia  and  along  the  same  line  as  the 
coal  formations  of  the  Western  Range. 

SANTANDER  FORMATIONS. 

The  indications  of  oil  in  the  De  Barco  concession,  which  covers 
the  entire  width  of  the  Department  of  Norte  de  Santander  in  its 
extreme  northern  end,  consist  of  oil  springs,  mud  volcanoes,  and 
gas  emanations,  with  here  and  there  small  asphalt  pools  mixed  with 
subterranean  mud,  found  in  the  region  of  the  headwaters  of  the 
Catatumbo  River  northwest  of  the  border  town  of  Cucuta  in  Colombia 
and  along  the  line  of  the  western  branch  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera 
north  of  the  point  where  this  range  sends  off  an  important  range 
into  Venezuela.  Oil  indications  have  been  found  on  both  sides  of 
this  range,  both  toward  the  lowlands  of  the  Maracaibo  watershed 
and  to  the  west  and  northwest  toward  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountain 
group.  The  De  Barco  concession  covers  about  1,500,000  acres,  the 
tract  measuring  320  by  80  kilometers.  The  surface  oil  found  is  of 
both  paraffin  and  asphalt  base  and  of  as  high  as  40°  Baume 
gravity. 

This  region  was  explored  by  the  engineers  of  the  Carib  Syndicate, 
owners  of  the  De  Barco  concession,  in  the  spring  of  1919,  and  drilling 
machinery  is  being  imported  via  Venezuela  for  the  development 
of  the  property. 

While  there  are  no  geological  reports  available  for  publication 
which  would  convey  a  more  intimate  idea  of  the  formation  occurring 
in  this  region,  it  is  significant  that  there  appears  to  be  a  very  definite 
connection  between  the  oil  deposits  of  the  Maracaibo  region  in 
Venezuela,  those  of  the  De  Barco  concession,  those  of  the  Tropical 


126     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Oil  Co.  in  Santander  near  the  Magdalena  River,  surface  indications 
in  southern  Antioquia  and  in  Tohma,  and  the  recent  reports  of  oil 
in  the  Department  of  Cauca  west  of  Popayan.  Oil  has  been  developed 
in  the  Maracaibo  region  of  Venezuela;  the  Caribbean  Petroleum  Co. 
and  a  Canadian-English  company  are  drilling  for  oil  in  Venezuela 
near  the  De  Barco  concession,  which  lies  in  Colombian  territory,  and 
a  study  of  the  relief  map  of  Colombia  will  show  that  these  indica- 
tions of  oil  and  wells  actually  developed  are  all  along  a  well-defined 
line  running  from  the  producing  wells  near  San  Lorenzo  in  Venezuela 
to  the  south  by  southwest  through  the  De  Barco  concession,  down 
through  Santander  through  the  properties  of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.S 
(De  Mares  concession),  through  the  region  of  the  indications  in 
Antioquia  and  Tolima,  and  on  down  to  the  Pacific  west  of  Popayan — 
forming  a  line*  slightly  curved  to  the  east. 

This  line  represents  the  line  of  the  great  anticlinal  formation 
which  has  been  traced  throughout  its  entire  extent,  and,  from  the 
reports  of  a  number  of  independent  geologists  (each  having  covered  a 
separate  region),  the  theory  has  been  evolved  that  the  oil  formation 
extends  along  this  line,  cutting  through  almost  the  entire  moun- 
tainous part  of  Colombia.  It  is  this  theory  which  presents  the  most 
interesting  factor  involved  in  the  study  of  the  development  of  petro- 
leum in  Colombia. 

OIL-LAND  CONCESSIONS  AND  DEVELOPMENTS  IN  THE  PAST. 

MARTINEZ  INTERESTS— STANDARD  OIL  CO. 

Taking  the  history  of  the  oil-land  concessions  and  development 
work  by  foreign  companies  in  chronological  order,  one  finds  that 
the  oil  springs  of  the  Sinu  River  region  first  attracted  attention, 
together  with  the  indications  to  the  east  of  Cartagena  near  the  towns 
of  Turbaco,  Repelon,  and  Rotane,  and  led  to  the  obtaining  of  a 
concession  from  the  Colombian  (jovernment  by  Diego  Martinez 
y  Cia.,  of  Cartagena,  in  1905.  This  concession  was  to  run  for  20 
years,  and  ^ave  what  was  considered  practically  a  monopoly  of  the 
oil-refining  industry  for  the  Caribbean  coast  of  Colombia. 

These  concessionaires  brought  in  a  boring  apparatus  and  sunk  two 
shallow  wells  of  300  feet  near  the  town  of  Turbaco,  20  miles  from 
Cartagena,  on  the  Cartagena-Calamar  Railway.  Gas  and  other 
signs  of  oil  were  found,  and  it  was  thought  at  the  time  that  deeper 
borings  would  have  discovered  petroleum. 

In  1908  the  Cartagena  Oil  Refining  Co.  was  formed,  being  an  Ameri- 
can corporation,  the  stockholders  of  which,  however,  were  Colombian 
citizens,  headed  by  the  Diego  Martinez  interests.  This  company, 
in  1915,  had  an  investment  of  about  $150,000,  including  the  work 
at  Turbaco,  and  the  oil  refinery  at  Cartagena  was  paying  an  annual 
dividend  of  60  to  90  per  cent,  using  imported  crude  oils  from  the 
United  States  and  supplying  the  coast  and  interior  with  refined  petro- 
leum products. 

In  1914  the  Pearson  interests,  of  London,  engaged  in  making  sur- 
veys and  plans  for  the  improvement  of  the  harbor  of  Cartagena, 
became  interested  in  the  oil  development  of  Colonibia  and  were 
offered  the  refinery  and  oil  lands  of  the  Cartagena  Oil  Refining  Co. 

» Now  owned  by  International  Petroleum  Co.;  see  p.  130. 


PETROLEUM.  127 

for  $800,000,  which  offer  they  refused.  Later  this  same  offer  was 
made  to  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  but  was  again  rejected.  In  the  mean- 
time the  Pearson  interests  were  endeavoring  to  obtain  an  oil  con- 
cession from  the  Colombian  Government  which  involved  a  heavy 
loan  to  the  Government  and  constituted  what  was  practically  an 
exclusive  right  to  explore  for  and  exploit  oil  in  the  country.  The 
advent  of  the  European  war  apparently  brought  to  an  end  these 
negotiations  on  the  part  of  British  interests. 

Subsequently  the  Standard  Oil  Co.  entered  into  an  agreement 
with  the  Martinez  interests  to  take  over  the  control  of  the  oil  refinery 
at  Cartagena  and  to  explore  for  oil  in  the  district  covered  by  their 
concession  reaching  from  Turbaco  on  the  cast  through  to  the  Sinu 
River  to  the  west  and  as  far  as  a  part  of  the  Atrato  River  Valley. 
During  1914  and  1915  a  well-organized  attempt  was  made  by  the 
Standard  Oil  Co.  to  prospect  the  district  for  oil;  camps  were  estab- 
lished, equipment  imported,  and  several  wells  drilled  to  considerable 
depth,  encountering  shales  and  a  thin  ooze  of  oil  but  no  large  quan- 
tities. This  company  definitely  withdrew  in  1916  from  this  field, 
not  because  the  prospects  for  oil  were  not  good,  but  on  account  of 
certain  other  unpropitious  conditions. 

ARMELLA-DE  MARES  CONCESSION  EAST  OF  CARTAGENA. 

Another  oil-land  concession  in  the  Caribbean  district  was  that 
known  as  the  Armella-De  Mares  concession,  secured  by  the  old 
ArmeUa-De  Mares  Co.,  of  Barranquilla,  from  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment prior  to  1900.  This  concession  covered  a  tract  of  land  having 
a  total  area  of  about  210  square  miles  and  extending  east  from 
Turbaco,  taking  in  the  surface  indications  around  the  towns  of 
Repelon,  Rotane,  and  Rosa  Vieja,  east  of  Cartagena  and  about 
40  miles  southwest  of  Barranquilla.  Most  of  this  property  was 
covered  by  local  concessions  granted  to  the  promotors  by  the  munici- 
palities of  Arenal  and  Repelon.  The  rights  and  titles  were  somewhat 
clouded  by  reason  of  disputed  boundaries  and  ancient  claims  of  the 
two  municipalities  and  were  further  jeopardized  by  the  policy  of  the 
National  Government. 

This  concession  was  taken  over  by  a  Canadian  company  in  1907 
and  several  wells  were  put  down,  the  work  being  in  charge  of  American 
oil-well  men  of  experience.  Oil  was  discovered  at  a  depth  of  600  feet, 
but  the  drilling  had  to  be  suspended  when  a  formation  was  encoun- 
tered that  prevented  further  drilling  with  the  tools  and  machinery 
employed.  This  work  was  suspended  in  September,  1908.  In  the 
summer  of  1909  a  second  well  was  sunk,  with  the  same  tools  but  with 
a  new  crew  of  workmen;  and,  after  many  vexatious  delays  due  to 
heavy 'rains,  floods,  unskilled  labor,  and  transportation  dfifficulties, 
oil  was  found  at  the  depths  of  500  and  1,000  feet,  of  excellent  qualitj 
(testing  as  high  as  47°  Baume  gravity)  but  in  small  quantity.  This 
well  was  capped,  and  engineers  sent  out  from  England  recommended 
the  further  prospecting  of  the  property,  but  this  was  prevented  by 
the  advent  of  the  Great  War. 

A  new  company  is  now  being  promoted  in  the  United  States  by  a 
prominent  Colombian  of  Cartagena  to  take  over  the  old  Martinez 
concession  and  other  lands  farther  to  the  south  with  the  purpose  of 
prospecting  them  for  oil. 


128     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
DE  MARES  CONCESSION  IN  SANTANDER— WORK  OF  TROPICAL  OIL  CO. 

One  of  the  pioneers  in  oil  exploration  in  Colombia,  Sr.  Roberto 
do  Mares,  secured  a  concession  irom  the  Government  prior  to  1900 
covering  a  very  large  tract  in  the  Department  of  Santander  (del  Sur) — 
Sr.  De  Mares  havmg  also  been  associated  with  Sr.  A.  Armella,  of 
Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  in  the  concession  covering  the  Repelon 
tract  on  the  Caribbean  coast.  The  first  efforts  to  interest  foreign 
capital  in  this  property  met  with  failure  on  account  of  the  revolution 
of  1898-1904,  the  party  of  engineers  brought  down  in  1904  not  being 
able  to  land  at  Barranquilla  on  account  of  the  disturbed  condition  oi 
the  country  at  the  time.  The  concession  was  renewed  in  1905  and 
again  in  1916,  and  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.,  of  Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  was 
interested  in  the  project;  this  resulted  in  active  prospecting  of  the 
property  during  1917,  1918,  and  1919,  and  the  bringing  in  of  three 
flowing  wells. 

The  subscribed  stock  of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  amounted  to  1,500,000 
shares,  with  approximately  $4,000,000  available  for  development 
work.  A  total  of  about  $800,000  had  been  spent  up  to  the  summer 
of  1919. 

The  lands  of  the  De  Mares  concession  front  on  the  Magdalena 
River  in  the  Department  of  Santander,  extending  to  the  north  as  far 
as  the  Sogamoso  River  (a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena  on  the  eastern 
side),  to  the  east  as  far  as  the  high  mountain  range,  and  south  as  far 
as  the  Carare  River  (also  a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena).  The 
frontage  on  the  Magdalena  is  approximately  30  miles,  and  the  depth 
from  the  river  to  the  mountains  averages  75  miles — the  area  containing 
in  all  about  1,300,000  acres  (another  estimate  gives  3,000,000  acres). 

The  concession  is  subject  to  third-party  rights  and  does  not  include 
the  right  to  the  subsoil  of  lands  adjudicated  prior  to  the  land  laws 
of  October  28,  1873.     (See  p.  133.) 

The  headquarters  of  the  company  are  located  at  the  river  port  of 
Barranca  Bermeja,  at  the  outlet  of  the  Colorado  River,  where  this 
company  has  built  houses  for  quarters  and  offices,  a  machine  shop 
and  workshop,  storehouses,  etc.  Launches  are  operated  on  the 
Colorado  River  during  the  wet  season  to  the  oil  wells,  which  are 
located  at  the  junction  of  the  Oponcito  River  with  the  Colorado 
30  miles  southeast  of  Barranca  Bermeja.  The  known  oil  fields  lie 
between  the  Colorado  River  and  the  Sogamoso  River,  in  the 
Department  of  Santander. 

The  land  is  level  for  4  or  5  miles  back  from  the  river  and  then 
becomes  very  broken  and  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  jungle  and 
hardwood  timber.  The  countrv  becomes  more  difficult  farther  to 
the  east  and  south  toward  the  high  mountains  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera. 

The  Colorado  River  can  not  be  navigated,  even  by  canoes,  during 
about  seven  months  of  the  year,  so  the  company  is  now  engaged  in 
constructing  a  good  wagon  road  from  Barranca  Bermeja  to  the  oil 
wells,  over  which  a  pipe  line  (diameter  6  inches)  is  also  to  be  run 
to  bring  the  crude  oil  down  from  the  wells  to  the  small  refinery  being 
erected  at  the  river  at  Barranca  Bermeja.  The  total  length  of  this 
wagon  road  and  pipe  line  will  be  35  miles,  and  the  road  will  be  so 
constructed  as  to  take  tractor  traffic.  The  camp  at  the  wells  will  be 
the  headquarters  of  the  new  prospecting  work  being  done  farther  to 


PETBOLEUM.  129 

the  northeast  in  lands  of  the  concession,  in  which  there  is  every 
prospect  of  obtaining  still  greater  supplies  of  high-OTade  crude  oU. 

The  small  refinery  being  installed  at  Barranca  Bermeja  will  have 
a  sufficient  capacity  to  supply  the  entire  country  with  petroleum 
products  such  as  gasoline,  kerosene,  lubricants,  etc.,  wliich,  according 
to  the  conditions  oT  the  Minister  of  Public  Works,  published  in  July, 
1919,  will  be  sold  in  Colombia  "  at  not  greater  than  New  York  prices." 
Barranca  Bermeja  is  approximately  400  miles  from  the  Caribbean 
coast  at  Cartagena,  ana  Bogota  is  distant  about  300  miles  by  river 
and  rail.  A  large  center  of  consumption — the  second  largest,  if  not 
the  largest,  in  the  country — is  Medellin,  the  capital  of  Antioquia. 
From  the  site  of  the  refinery  it  is  about  125  Idlometers  (77  miles)  by 
river  to  Puerto  Berrio,  from  which  point  Medellin  is  reached  by  rail 
over  two  divisions  of  the  Antioquia  Railway,  181  kilometers  (109 
miles)  long.  The  largest  consumption  in  Colombia  will  be  that  of 
residual  fuel  oil  for  the  river  steamers,  of  which  there  are  about  140 
plying  on  the  Magdalena  and  its  tributaries,  a  number  of  which  are 
more  or  less  navigable  for  shallow-draft  boats.  It  may  be  expected 
that  fuel  oil  will  take  the  place  of  the  wood  now  used  for  fuel  and  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  operation  of  river  transportation. 

The  wells  have  respective  depths  of  1,700,  1,900,  and  2,300  feet, 
and  are  located  very  near  each  other  (within  a  few  hundred 
yards).  They  are  flowing  wells,  pumping  not  being  necessary 
to  secure  a  production  estimated  at  6,000  to  8,000  barrels  per 
day  of  24  hours.     Two  of  these  wells  produce  both  grades  of  oil — 

{)araffin  base  and  asphalt  base — the  latter  coming  from  the  lower 
evel  and  not  exceeding  3  per  cent  in  suspension.  The  gravity  is 
35.5°  Baume  scale.  These  wells  remained  capped  during  1919,  pend- 
ing the  erection  of  the  refinery  and  the  completion  of  the  pipe  line 
to  the  river  from  the  wells. 

It  is  considered  that  this  property  can  produce  a  much  greater 
flow  of  oil  through  other  drillings  on  what  is  considered  proven  ground, 
but  the  problem  is  one  of  transportation  to  tidewater  and  thence  to 
the  world's  refineries.  It  is  necessary  to  construct  a  pipe  line  400 
miles  long  from  the  wells  to  the  Caribbean  coast,  the  cost  of  this  line 
being  estimated  at  $20,000,000  to  $30,000,000,  including  pumping 
stations,  tank  storage,  and  loading  facilities  at  Cartagena.^  It  is  esti- 
mated that  a  daily  capacity  of  50,000  barrels  would  be  necessary  in 
order  to  justify  fully  the  cost  of  this  line;  but  it  has  also  been  pointed 
out  that  while  the  Colombian  oil  fields  will  have  to  compete  with 
Mexico,  Texas,  and  California  production,  the  Colombian  oil  found 
in  the  wells  mentioned  is  of  a  much  higher  gravity  than  the  Mexican 
or  American  petroleum  and  as  such  will  command  a  much  higher 
price  at  refineries.  Another  advantage  is  the  shorter  distance  by 
sea  from  Cartagena  to  the  refineries  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  of  the 
United  State's  than  from  Tampico  in  Mexico.  This  Colombian  oil  is 
of  too  light  a  gravity  to  use  as  fuel  oil  for  steamers  without  refining. 

In  March,  1919,  there  arrived  at  Barranca  Bermeja  an  increased 
force  of  engineers,  pipe-line  men,  refinery  experts,  etc.,  and  the  work 
on  the  new  wagon  road  to  the  wells  was  bein^  pushed. 

In  the  early  months  of  1920  the  holdings  of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  in 
Colombia  were  taken  over  by  one  of  the  subsidiary  companies  of  the 

1  See  footnote  on  next  page. 
37558°— 21 9 


130     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Standard  Oil  Co.  It  is  rumored  that  the  new  owners  will  construct 
the  pipe  line  to  Cartagena  and  provide  for  the  exportation  of  oil  from 
the  De  Mares  concession  lands,  and,  also,  that  new  prospecting  and 
drilling  for  increased  production  will  be  actively  pushed  during  the 
next  two  years.* 

STIMULATION  OF  INTEREST— MISCELLANEOUS  ACTIVITIES. 

This  development  of  high-grade  oil  in  paying  quantities  on  the  De 
Mares  concession  by  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  has  done  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  stimulate  the  interest  in  oil  prospects  in  Colombia,  and 
many  American  and  several  British  oil  companies  have  had  experts 
on  the  ground  during  the  past  two  years.  At  one  time  during  1919 
there  were  as  many  as  nine  representatives  of  large  oil  companies  in 
the  country  and  not  a  few  individual  promoters  interested  in  securing 
options,  leases,  concessions,  etc.,  on  oil  lands. 

Among  these  companies  may  be  mentioned  the  Colombian  Petroleum 
Co.,  owners  of  the  De  Barco  concession  in  Norte  de  Santander;  the 
Tropical  Oil  Co.,  which  had  engineers  out  in  the  San  Jorge  River  region 
already  mentioned;  the  St.  Clair  Oil  Co.;  the  Island  Oil  &  Transport 
Co.;  the  Gulf  Oil  &  Transport  Co.;  the  Ohio  Cities  Gas  Co.;  the 
Aaronson  interests,  of  Tulsa,  Okla.;  the  Union  Oil  Co.,  of  California, 
which  sent  a  party  of  engineers  down  in  February,  1920,  to  report  on 
properties  adjoining  those  of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  in  Santander;  and 
two  engineers  of  tne  Balfour- Williams  Syndicate  (British),  which 
owns  extensive  oil  properties  in  Peru  and  ^as  also  explored  for  oil  in 
Ecuador  recently. 

DE  BARCO  CONCESSION  IN  NORTE  DE  SANTANDER. 

The  De  Barco  concession  was  originally  granted  by  the  Colombian 
Government  to  Sr.  Virgilio  de  Barco,  of  Cfucuta,  in  1905.  Fifty  years 
was  the  period  of  time  allotted,  and  the  concession  called  for  the 
payment  to  the  Government  of  5  per  cent  of  the  gross  proceeds  of  the 

E reduction  of  the  field,  which  occupies  the  entire  northern  part  of  the 
department  of  Norte  de  Santander,  northwest  of  the  border  town  of 
Cucuta  and  lying  directly  opposite  known  and  proved  oil  fields  in  the 
Maracaibo  region  of  Venezuela.  This  concession  carried  also  the 
privilege  of  exploitation  of  asphalt  and  coal  and  was  taken  over  by 
the  Carib  Syndicate,  an  American  promotion  company,  in  1917.  The 
Colombian  Government  formally  allowed  the  transfer  of  this  conces- 
sion to  the  Carib  Syndicate  in  April,  1918,  but  with  certain  modifica- 
tions of  the  terms  of  the  original  concession,  the  amount  of  the  gross 
product  to  be  received  by  the  Government  being  increased  to  10  per 
cent  and  other  measures  of  control  added.  The  Carib  Syndicate 
explored  the  region  of  the  concession  in  1919  and  that  same  year 
transferred  its  rights  in  this  concession  to  another  American  oil  com- 

Eany  formed    by  the    Doherty   interests    of    Pittsburgh,  Pa.,  and 
nown  in  the  United  States  as  the  Colombian  Petroleum  Co.  and  in 

>  Editor's  Note.— In  the  Petroleum  Age  for  May,  1921,  the  foUowingltem  appeared:  "The  International 
Petroleum  Co.,  a  Standard  subsidiary,  has  purchased  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ma^dalena  River, 
on  which  the  company  plans  to  erect  the  greatest  oil  refinery  in  the  world,  having  a  daily  capacity 
of  25,000  barrels  at  the  start.  The  Standard  interests  are  spending  millions  of  dollars  in  developing 
the  tract  recently  purchased  from  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  The  property  is  estimated  to  be  between  two  and 
three  million  acre;,  for  which  the  Standara  interests  paid  about  i25,000,000.  More  than  $2."),000,000  is  now 
being  spent  in  developing  the  property.  Three  wells  have  been  brought  in  *  *  *.  The  compjany  is 
laying  a  pipe  line  from  the  field  to  tidewater — over  300  miles — at  a  cost  of  some  $3,000,000."  This  item  is 
reproduced  here  merely  as  the  statement  of  an  American  periodical  that  is  supposedly  well  informed  on 
petroleum  matters.  It  may  be  noted  that  there  is  a  marked  discrepancy  as  to  the  cost  of  the  pipe  line 
between  this  statement  and  that  of  Trade  Commissioner  Bell. 


PETROLEUM.  131 

Colombia  as  the  Compania  Colombiana  de  Petroleo,  the  latter  com- 
pany constituting  practically  the  holding  company  in  Colombia. 

The  Colombian  Petroleum  Co.  is  to  do  the  actual  work  of  drilling 
and  prospecting  for  oil  on  this  concession  under  an  arrangement  on 
a  royalty  basis  with  the  Carib  Syndicate,  which  retains  a  25  per  cent 
interest  in  the  concession  and  its  future  possible  production.  The 
Colombian  Petroleum  Co.  has  recently  been  able  to  secure  permission 
to  bring  in  its  equipment  and  machinery  through  Venezuela  via  Mara- 
caibo  and  the  Catatumbo  River,  which  rises  in  Colombian  territory 
and,  during  part  of  the  year,  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  from 
Lake  Maracaibo  for  a  considerable  distance.  This  route  is  much 
easier  of  travel  and  access  than  that  from  the  Magdalena  River  over- 
land to  the  concession  in  Norte  de  Santander,  on  account  of  the 
topography  of  the  intervening  country.  It  is  impossible  to  trans- 
port neavy  machinery  from  the  Magdalena  overland  to  the  conces- 
sion without  the  construction  of  a  very  costly  road.  The  country  is 
much  more  level  and  easy  on  the  eastern  watershed  toward  Lake 
Maracaibo. 

The  De  Barco  concession  measures  approximately  320  kilometers 
(198  miles)  in  length  by  80  kilometers  (50  miles)  in  depth  and  con- 
tains about  1,500,000  acres.  Surface  indications  contain  crude  petro- 
leum of  as  high  as  40°  Baume  gravity  and  of  both  asphalt  and 
paraffin  base.     During  1918  difficulty  was  encountered  in  securing 

Eermission  to  import  the  machinery  and  equipment  for  drilling 
y  way  of  Maracaibo  on  account  of  the  opposition  of  interests 
owning  oil-land  concessions  directly  opposite  in  Venezuela,  who 
claimed  that  drilling  in  the  lands  of  the  De  Barco  concession 
would  drain  their  properties,  since  the  De  Barco  lands  are 
of  much  lower  level.  As  has  been  said,  permission  was  finally 
secured,  and  in  June,  1919,  part  of  the  drilling  equipment  of  the  Col- 
ombian Petroleum  Co.  had  already  arrived  at  Maracaibo  and  prepa- 
rations for  its  transportation  into  the  interior  and  for  drilling  opera- 
tions were  going  forward  rapidly,  in  charge  of  American  oil-well 
crews  with  experience  in  similar  work  in  Mexico. 

The  Carib  Syndicate  has  opened  offices  in  Cartagena,  from  which 
point  expeditions  of  engineers  have  covered  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, the  company  being  interested  in  the  acquisition  of  other  oil 
lands  for  exploration  and  development  purposes. 

Colombian  citizens  have  been  very  mucn  interested  in  oil  lands 
and  are  taking  an  active  part  in  the  development  of  the  industry 
in  the  way  of  the  acquisition  of  prospective  oil-bearing  lands  and  the 
promotion  of  new  oil  companies,  as  well  as  the  presentation  of  appar- 
ent opportunities  in  prospective  oil  properties  to  large  American 
petroleum  interests. 

OIL-LAND  TITLES  AND  LEGISLATION. 

CONDITIONS  IN  SPANISH  COLONIAL  TIMES. 

Legislation  dealing  with  oil-bearing  lands  in  Colombia  has,  in  the 
past,  been  incomplete  and  very  indefinite,  but  based  principally  on 
the  old  mining  laws  of  the  country  handed  down  since  Spanish  colo- 
nial times.  As  a  rule,  the  Spanish  Crown  reserved  the  rights  to  de- 
posits and  mines  of  the  precious  metals  such  as  gold,  silver,  plati- 
num, copper,  and  precious  stones,  and  such  mines  were  obtainable 


132      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK. 

under  tlie  right  of  discovery  and  location,  it  being  the  policy  of  the 
Spanish  Crown  to  promote  in  all  possible  ways  the  production  of 
precious  metals  in  tne  American  colonies,  where  mining  was  the  prin- 
cipal industry  and  source  of  wealth  for  several  centuries.  The  wSpan- 
isn  Crown  also  granted  tracts  of  lands  to  colonists — always  to  tnose 
who  were  judged  capable  of  opening  and  developing  these  lands,  the 
areas  so  granted  being  limited  m  size  only  by  the  ability  of  the  favored 
party  to  stock  with  cattle  or  plant  thereon.  The  object  was  to  sccufe 
the  development,  and  consequent  wealth  for  revenue,  of  the  various 
colonies. 

The  "concjuistadores,"  such  as  Quesada  in  Colombia,  Pizarro  in 
Peru,  Cortez  m  Mexico,  and  their  captains  who  had  rendered  valuable 
services  in  the  discovery  and  conquest  of  new  Indian  kingdoms,  were 
also  given  enormous  grants  of  land — always,  or  nearly  always,  car- 
rying the  exclusive  right  to  the  mineral  wealth  found  thereon,  which 
was  not  the  case  when  lands  for  agricultural  or  stock-raising  pur- 
poses were  granted  to  other  colonists,  when  the  mineral  rights  were 
reserved  for  the  Crown. 

On  account  of  the  little  known  and  explored  condition  of  Colombia 
during  colonial  times,  its  broken  and  tropical  nature,  and  the  rather 
crude  means  of  survey  obtaining  at  the  time,  boundaries  were  vague, 
being  described  as  from  one  river  to  another  or  from  one  mountain 
range  to  another  (peaks  being  designated  as  corners,  etc.) ;  and  from 
this  condition  there  come  down  to  modern  times  many  conflicting 
titles  of  lands,  which  have  caused  endless  litigation. 

As  regards  mines  and  mining  properties,  the  Spanish  Crown  often 
reserved  certain  rich  properties  for  itself  and  for  operation  by  the 
Viceroy,  and  other  rich  properties  were  ceded  to  organizations  of  the 
church  which  had  previously  acauired  them  by  right  of  discovery 
through  influence  among  the  Indians — the  Indians,  who  knew  the 
country  well  and  were  expert  surface  prospectors,  being  encouraged 
to  seeK  for  rich  surface  indications  of  precious  metals. 

FROM  ESTABUSHMENT  OF  INDEPENDENCE  TO  1919. 

After  the  establishment  of  Colombian  independence,  the  new  Re- 
public declared  itself  the  inheritor  of  the  Crown  properties  and  also 
made  new  laws  which  were  amplifications  of  the  old  Spanish  laws 
dealing  with  mining  rights.  A  famous  pronouncement  in  this  con- 
nection was  that  of  the  Liberator,  Simon  Bolivar,  promulgated  in 
Quito,  Ecuador,  in  1829,  to  the  effect  that  the  subsoil  (all  mines) 
belonged  to  the  nation  (then  including  Venezuela,  Colombia,  and 
Ecuador  under  the  title  of  "La  Gran  Republica  de  Colombia") ;  and 
this  declaration  has  more  recently  been  the  inspiration  of  similar 
legislation  in  modern  Colombia,  being  cited  in  the  now  famous  presi- 
dential decree  of  June  20,  1919,  on  petroleum,  in  which  the  subsoil 
was  declared  the  property  of  the  nation  under  whatsoever  title. 

Mining  titles  have  already  been  explained  and  described  in  the 
chapter  on  mining.  Briefly,  the  mining  laws  of  the  State  of  Antioquia, 
where  mining  had  reached  a  higher  development  and  production  than 
in  any  other  part  of  the  country,  were  generally  adopted  in  1887  after 
the  system  of  confederated  sovereign  States  had  been  abandoned  by 
Colombia  in  favor  of  the  Unitarian  Republic  system  that  is  now  in 
force,  thus  doing  away  with  the  many  conflicting  laws  of  the  former 


PETROLEUM.  '  133 

sovereign  States  and  centralizing  mining  legislation  at  the  capital, 
Bogota.  According  to  this  arrangement,  all  emerald  mines  and  salt 
mines  belonged  to  the  nation,  to  be  operated  for  the  national  fiscal 
benefit,  all  gold,  silver,  platinum,  and  copper  mines  belonged  to  the 
States  (Departments) ,  and  all  other  mines  to  the  owner  of  the  land — 
this  bringing  petroleum,  asphaltum,  sulphur,  lead,  zinc,  clays,  coal, 
and  other  similar  substances  of  low  value  under  the  ownership  of  the 
owner  of  the  land. 

However,  previous  land  laws — notably  that  of  October  28,  1873, 
which  provided  for  the  readjudication  of  all  land  titles  in  the  country 
emanating  from  the  old  Spanish  Crown  ^ants — reserved  for  the 
nation  the  rights  to  mines  and  to  the  subsoil  on  public  lands  adjudi- 
cated after  that  date  to  private  individuals  and  companies;  hence, 
lands  secured  from  the  Government  subsequent  to  that  date  do  not 
carry  ownership  of  the  subsoil  either  for  precious  metals  or  for  coal, 
asphaltum,  or  petroleum.  The  situation  was  that  mines  of  minerals 
such  as  gold,  pratinum,'copper,  and  precious  stones  were  the  property 
of  the  nation,  neld  in  eminent  domain  and  subject  to  location  by  ri^ht 
of  discovery,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  mining  code,  whether 
located  on  private  or  Government  lands  of  whatever  title,  while 
deposits  of  coal,  petroleum,  clays,  and  the  like  belonged  to  the  owner 
of  the  lands  whose  title  predated  the  land  law  of  1873  above  referred 
to — the  Government  reserving  to  itself  the  right  to  coal,  petroleum, 
clays,  and  the  like  on  public  lands  still  open  for  adjudication  under 
the  land  laws  or  on  those  that  had  been  adjudicated  subsequent  to 
1873. 

Such  was  the  condition  when,  in  1913,  a  new  law  proposed  modifica- 
tions of  the  existing  laws  dealing  with  oil  lands,  and  requests  for  the 
adjudication  of  lands  supposed  to  contain  oil  reservoirs  or  for  oil-land 
concessions  were  suspended  by  the  Government.  In  the  meantime 
four  concessions  had  oeen  granted — that  of  the  Martinez  interests  in 
the  Cartagena  region,  that  of  the  Armella-De  Mares  Co.  near  Repelon 
on  the  Caribbean  coast,  that  of  Virgilio  de  Barco  in  Norte  de  San- 
tander,  and  that  of  Roberto  de  Mares  in  Santander  (del  Sur) .  Each 
of  these  concessions  was  granted  by  the  Government  under  special 
contract,  providing  for  noninterference  with  private  land  titles  held 
prior  to  1873,  as  noted,  and  covering  only  public  land  that  was  open 
for  adjudication  or  that  had  been  adjudicated  subsequent  to  1873, 
with  the  condition  that  the  national  Government  was  to  receive  a 
certain  percentage  (usually  5  per  cent)  of  the  gross  product  of  the  ex- 
ploitation. 

Up  to  1919  the  situation  was  one  of  imcertainty  as  to  the  ultimate 
attitude  of  the  Government  regarding  the  free  exploitation  of  oil 
lands,  arguments  bein^  divided  between  the  policy  of  free  location 
and  exploitation  of  public  lands  for  oil,  coal,  etc.,  and  the  policy  of 
Government  ownersnip  which  has  been  making  such  headway  in 
Colombia  during  the  past  20  years.  Matters  were  brought  to  a 
climax  by  the  development  of  oil  in  paying  quantities  on  the  property 
of  the  Tropical  Oil  Co.  (De  Mares  concession)  in  Santander,  and  by 
the  consequent  increase  of  interest  in  petroleum  in  the  country, 
augmented  by  the  activities  of  so  many  foreign  engineers  and  repre- 
sentatives of  foreign  oil  companies. 

It  would  appear  that  the  policy  of  the  administration  in  Bogota 
was  one  of  Government  ownership  and  control,  the  same  as  for  rail- 


134     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

ways  and  all  transportation  and  public  utilities;  and  matters  pertain- 
ing to  petroleum  legislation  were  further  brought  to  a  climax  by  the 
executive  decree  of  June  20,  1919  (No.  1255). 

RECENT  LEGISLATION  AND  PRESENT  STATUS. 

The  executive  decree  of  June  20,  1919,  above  referred  to,  declared 
for  the  policy  of  Government  ownership  of  the  subsoil  under  whatever 
title  and  established  a  Bureau  of  Statistics  for  Petroleum  Mines.  It 
made,  in  fact,  all  land  and  mining  laws  retroactive  to  the  decree  of 
Bolivar  in  Quito  on  October  24, 1829,  mentioned  on  page  132;  it  made 
the  permission  of  the  Government  necessary  for  exploration  of  oil 
lands;  and  it  established  Government  control  and  supervision  in  all 
lines  of  the  business. 

Suit  was  brought  in  the  Supreme  Court  of  Colombia  (by  Colombian 
citizens)  in  the  form  of  a  petition  which  declared  that  this  decree  was 
unconstitutional  according  to  article  41  of  the  legislative  act  No,  3  of 
1910,  in  which  lands  adjudicated  prior  to  the  land  law  passed  October 
28,  1873,  and  effective  October  28,  1874,  were  declared  not  to  be  Gov- 
ernment or  State  property  in  the  sense  of  public  lands.  The  decision 
handed  down  by  tne  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  on  November  21,  1919, 
sustained  the  petition  in  that  part  referring  to  articles  3,4,  and  5  of  the 
decree  (those  articles  proclaiming  petroleum  "mines"  situated  on 
private  lands  of  any  kind  to  be  the  property  of  the  nation)  and 
declared  that  such  can  only  be  the  case  when  lands  adjudicated  from 
the  public  domain  since  October  28,  1874,  are  in  question.  The 
court  decided  that  those  articles  of  the  decree  violated  article  120  of 
the  constitution  and  also  article  41  of  legislative  act  No.  3  of  1910, 
and  it  recommended  legislation  bv  the  Congress  that  would  resolve 
these  difficulties  and  settle  all  doubts  regarding  oil-land  rights,  titles, 
etc.  A  translation  of  this  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  of  Colombia 
and  also  one  of  the  executive  decree  of  June  20,  1919,  have  been  sub- 
mitted in  connection  with  this  report  and  maj  be  examined  by  in- 
terested persons  upon  application  to  the  Latin  American  Division, 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce,  Washington. 

This  decision  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  Justice  of  Colombia  was 
followed  by  the  legislative  act  No.  120  of  December  30,  1919,^ 
which,  while  making  the  provisions  for  exploration  and  exploitation 
somewhat  more  liberal  and  protecting  the  subsoil  rights  of  the 
owners  of  lands  adjudicated  prior  to  the  land  laws  effective  October 
28,  1874,  still  makes  effective  Government  control  of  oil  activity 
throughout  the  country  and  fixes  a  high  rate  of  taxation  on  the  gross 
production  of  oil  wells  and  properties  found  in  the  country. 

Several  features  of  this  new  and  latest  law  governing  petroleum 
exploitation  in  Colombia  have  given  rise  to  criticism,  chief  among 
these  being  the  fact  that,  on  forfeiture  of  an  exploitation  contract, 
all  property  within  the  concession  (ipso  facto)  becomes  the  property 
of  the  Kepublic;  the  high  rate  of  taxation  on  the  gross  product  (a 
ground  tax  also  is  provided  for) ;  the  onerous  technical  requirements 
providing  for  delivery  to  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works  of  copies  of 
all  geological,  technical,  and  topographical  reports  and  maps;  the 
short  time  limit  of  the  leases,  fixed  at  only  20  years,  whereas  it 
will  take  from  two  to  four  years  to  develop  any  oil  property  in  the 

>  Translated  copy  submitted;  available  in  Latin  American  Division. 


PETROLEUM.  135 

country  (not  to  mention  the  time  required  for  the  construction  of 
pipe  lines  and  other  export  facilities) ;  the  right  of  the  Government 
to  cancel  contracts  almost  at  will;  and  the  export  tax  of  6,  4,  and 
2  per  cent  of  the  gross  product  in  addition  to  the  exploitation  tax 
of  10,  8,  and  6  per  cent  of  the  gross,  according  to  the  zones  in  which 
the  oil  is  found.  It  would  appear  as  if  the  doctrine  of  Government 
control  had  been  sustained  by  the  Congress,  the  new  law  of  December 
30,  1919,  being  really  an  amplification  of  the  decree  of  June  20, 
1919,  above  described — ^with,  however,  provisions  for  the  protec- 
tion of  the  subsoil  rights  of  property  owners  whose  titles  antedate 
the  land  laws  effective  October  28,  1874,  who  are  left  at  liberty  to* 
negotiate  their  lands  for  the  exploitation  of  oil,  subject  to  the  super- 
vision of  the  National  Government  according  to  the  provisions  of 
this  later  law. 

In  the  meantime,  in  July,  1919,  the  Ministry  of  Public  Works 
published  the  conditions  under  which  the  Government  would  consent 
to  the  transfer  of  the  De  Mares  concession  to  the  Tropical  Oil  Co., 
which  had  developed  the  property,  as  has  been  explained.  The 
important  points  of  these  conditions  were  as  follows: 

First,  the  area  of  the  concession,  originally  containing  some 
1,300,000  acres  (also  estimated  at  as  high  as  3,000,000  acres),  was 
reduced  to  100,000  hectares,  or  approximately  247,000  acres. 

Second,  the  company  does  not  acquire  any  real  right  to  petroleum 
deposits  or  to  Government  lands,  operating  virtually  under  a  lease. 

Third,  the  Government  fixes  the  minimum  tax  on  the  gross  product 
at  10;per  cent  but  does  not  fix  what  the  maximum  rate  shall  oe  (this 
action  being  similar  to  that  in  the  new  and  later  law  of  Dec.  30,  1919). 

Fourth,  the  company  is  obligated  to  erect  a  refinery  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  supply  the  country  with  petroleum  products,  within 
two  years'  time,  and  to  sell  such  products  at  New  York  prices. 

Fifth,  the  company  renounces  all  right  to  Government  lands  covered 
by  the  original  concession  of  1905. 

Sixth,  the  company  renounces  all  right  to  diplomatic  reclamation 
and  binds  itself  to  abide  by  all  decisions  of  the  Colombian  courts. 

SUMMARY  OF  PETROLEUM  PROSPECTS. 

In  conclusion,  in  summing  up  the  prospects  for  the  development 
of  large  production  of  high-grade  petroleum  in  Colombia,  it  may  be 
said  that  these  prospects  are  very  good  indeed  and  that  the  country 
undoubtedly  possesses  the  source  of  much  national  wealth  in  ite 
oil  resources. 

However,  there  exists  an  exaggerated  idea  among  the  Colombian 
people  regarding  the  actual  value  of  the  natural  resources  in  general 
and  that  of  petroleum  in  particular,  and  there  is  little  knowledge  of 
the  magnitude  of  such  undertakings  or  of  the  very  great  expense 
and  risk  involved.  It  would  seem  that  the  people  themselves  expect 
too  much  in  the  way  of  national  wealth  from  their  oil  bodies.  Good 
producing  wells  will  doubtless  be  brought  in;  but,  as  in  Mexico, 
Peru,  and  other  oil-producing  countries,  oil  will  not  be  found  every- 
where and  there  will  be  several  good  producing  districts  while  a 
great  deal  of  time  and  money  will  oe  spent  in  other  places  that  will 
not  fulfill  the  hopes  of  the  nation  or  of  the  persons  directly  concerned. 


136    coldmbta:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

On  account  of  the  adverse  conditions  of  climate,  topography,  and 
lack  of  transportation  facilities,  oil  work  in  Colombia  takes  from 
twice  to  four  times  as  long  and  costs  from  twice  to  four  times  as 
much  as  in  more  favored  regions  such  as  Texas  or  the  Tampico  fields 
of  Mexico.  The  exploitation  of  the  petroleum  in  the  fields  of  the 
interior  is  fraught  with  many  difTicuities,  principally  that  of  trans- 
portation. The  Magdalena  River  offers  a  slow  and  expensive  route, 
at  best,  and  is  extremely  difficult  throughout  five  or  six  months  of 
the  year  during  the  season  of  low  water  (November  to  April) ;  and 
the  most  serious  transport  troubles  really  begin  after  the  river  is  left 
^^ehind. 

OPERATING  COSTS  AND  LABOR  CONDITIONS. 

All  skilled  labor,  with  the  possible  exception  of  donkcj^-boiler  men 
(in  some  cases  available  from  the  men  already  trained  in  the  river 
steamer  service) ,  must,  at  first,  be  imported  from  the  United  States. 
This  means  the  regular  drillers,  tool  men,  and  others,  who  will  receive 
the  United  States  scale,  plus  medical  attendance  free,  plus  transporta- 
tion to  and  from  the  country  under  at  least  a  one-year  contract. 
This  imported  labor  will  not  and  can  not  be  nearly  as  efficient  in  the 
Tropics  as  in  colder  climates. 

Natives  can  be  used  for  packers,  canoe  men,  machete  and  ax  men 
in  cutting  trails  and  building  roads,  etc. ;  and  a  few  fairly  good  car- 
penters, blacksmiths,  and  similar  workmen  could  be  contracted  for 
in  the  country.  Such  men  do  not  know  rough  wood  construction 
work,  however,  and  the  blacksmiths  could  not  be  expected  to  sharpen 
tools,  etc.,  imtil  trained.  This  native  skilled  labor  is  slo\ '?  and 
requires  a  great  deal  of  supervision.  Medellin  would  be  the  best 
source  of  supply  of  this  class  of  labor,  but  high  wages  would  need  to 
be  offered  to  get  these  men  away  from  their  homes  and  into  the  hot 
country  (which  they  fear,  with  reason) . 

The  only  way  in  which  the  common  labor  can  be  handled  at  all  is 
by  the  "tarea"  system,  or  piecework  basis,  and  this  should  be  em- 
ployed whenever  possible.  The  Colombians  are  not  as  good  mule 
packers  as  the  Mexicans,  and  their  equipment  is  not  nearly  so  good 
as  the  famous  Mexican  leather  ''aparrejo,"  since  adopted  by  the 
United  States  Army  for  use  in  mountain  mule  transport. 

Common  laborers  in  the  Caribbean  district  get,  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts, an  average  of  $0.00  per  day  for  rough  machete  and  ax  work, 
etc.  In  the  towns  of  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena  where  work  is  to 
be  had  handling  cargoes,  the  average  wage  is  now  as  high  as  $1.20 

Eer  day  for  this  class  of  labor.  Usually  sufficient  seasonal  labor  can 
e  recruited  from  near-by  towns  for  this  class  of  work  around  oil 
wells.  Packers  receive  about  the  same,  and  head  packers  and  good 
men  are  paid  as  high  as  $1  to  $1.20  per  day,  in  addition  to  their 
food  allowance,  when  on  the  trail,  away  from  their  homes. 

Native  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  masons,  and  similar  workmen  can 
be  contracted  for  at  about  $75  per  month  and  expenses  of  transpor- 
tation, lodging,  etc.,  when  away  from  their  home  towns. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the  high  cost  of  living 
has  reached  Colombia  and  that  wages  everywhere  in  the  coimtry 
and  in  all  lines  of  work  have  been  increased  by  at  least  60  per  cent 
during  1918  and  1919,  except  in  the  Departments  of  Cundinamarca 
and  Boyaca,  where  there  is  lound  a  very  large  number  of  people  who 
earn,  in  the  fields,  only  $0.30  per  day,  but  who  can  not  be  persuaded 


PETROLEUM.  137 

to  go  down  into  the  hot  country  for  any  wages,  however  large  they 
may  appear  to  them. 

It  will  take  any  new  drilling  outfit  some  time  to  collect  a  fairly 
efficient  crew  of  natives  for  all  classes  of  work  necessary,  and  it  is  to 
be  expected  that  unusually  high  wages  (for  Colombia)  will  have  to 
be  paid  to  get  the  men  to  go  into  the  jungles  of  the  interior  and  stay 
on  the  job  for  any  length  of  time. 

One  thing  is  favorable.  These  men  are  not  exacting  as  to  their 
accommodations,  shelter  being  all  they  require;  feeding  arrange- 
ments have  to  be  provided  only  for  the  foreign  drill  crews,  since  the 
Colombians  usually  have  their  women  along  with  them.  In  fact, 
the  peons,  or  common  laborers,  expect  to  put  up  their  own  shelters, 
made  of  the  ever-present  bamboo  poles  and  palm  thatched,  etc. 
This  they  do  in  a  few  hours,  using  only  the  machete  for  the  purpose. 
This  is  the  only  tool  they  know  how  to  use  and  all  they  need  in  the 
way  of  equipment. 

Supplies  of  beef  (on  the  hoof),  corn,  yucca,  etc.,  can  nearly  always 
be  obtained  if  the  camp  is  near  one  of  the  many  rivers  or  small 
villages.  If  it  is  in  the  interior  jungles,  these  supplies  and  everything 
else  would  have  to  be  packed  in  from  such  supply  points. 

Each  camp  should  be  supplied  with  a  good  medical  outfit  and  spe- 
cial equipment  to  combat  malarial  fevers,  dysentery,  etc.  A  good  doc- 
tor (perhaps  one  experienced  at  Panama,  where  special  work  has  long 
been  done  to  combat  malaria)  is  the  best  asset  a  camp  can  have,  and 
his  services  will  go  a  long  way  toward  the  efficiency  of  the  work  and 
the  success  of  the  enterprise.  In  view  of  the  past  experiences  of 
dredging,  mining,  lumber,  and  oil  camps  in  Colombia,  there  can  be 
no  doubt  about  the  necessity  and  value  of  a  good  doctor  with  the 
camp. 


CATTLE  RAISING. 

RfeSUMfe  OF  GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

Colombia  is  not  a  cattle  country  in  the  sense  the  term  is  applied 
to  the  western  part  of  the  Unitea  States,  parts  of  Argentina,  Uru- 
guay, and  the  southern  part  of  Brazil.  Though  there  are  a  number 
of  important  cattle-raising  districts,  there  is,  with  possibly  two  excep- 
tions, no  "open  range"  such  as  existed  in  the  American  West  two 
decades  ago.  The  principal  exceptions  are  (1)  the  great  "llanos"  of 
the  Orinoco  watershed  lying  to  tne  east  of  the  inhabited  portion  of 
the  country  and  (2)  the  plams  of  the  Sogamoso  in  the  Department 
of  Boyaca,  north  of  Bogota,  which  form  the  northern  half  of  the  great 
table-land  of  the  Eastern  Andes.  Another  region,  across  the  low  ranges 
of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  southeast  of  the  city  of  Neiva  (capital  of 
the  Department  of  Huila) ,  lying  near  the  headwaters  of  the  Manza- 
nares  and  Guaviare  Rivers  but  composed  only  of  the  high  benches  or 
series  of  plateaus  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  range,  is  beginning  to 
attract  attention  as  a  new  cattle-raising  section  and  is  receiving  the 
benefit  of  capital  and  immigration  from  Bogota  and  Medellin.  These 
interests  are  being  attracted  by  the  steadily  increasing  prices  and 
demand  for  beef  cattle  in  Colombia.  Prices  have  doubled  during 
the  last  two  years.  In  the  beginning  of  1918  beef  steers  four  and  five 
years  old  were  worth  only  $40  each  on  the  hoof  from  the  Sinu  district 
(where  the  feed  is  artificially  planted  Para  grass) ,  while  at  the  present 
writing,  early  in  1920,  they  were  reported  as  selling  for  an  average 
price  of  $80  per  head,  delivered  on  the  property. 

This  increase  in  the  value  of  cattle  has  greatly  stimulated  the 
industry  of  cattle  raising.  More  capital  is  being  attracted  to  invest 
in  the  business;  new  lands  are  being  cleared  and  fenced  in  the  more 
favored  regions  of  the  country;  and  it  is  safe  to  predict  that  within 
10  years  the  total  number  of  head  of  beef  stock  will  be  doubled. 

Cattle  raising  has  always  been  one  of  the  principal  industries  of 
Colombia  and,  from  colonial  times,  one  of  the  chief  and  most  stable 
sources  of  national  wealth.  But  the  cattle  have  been  principally  for 
domestic  consumption,  though  a  certain  number  have  been  exported 
— first  to  Cuba  and  more  recently  to  the  Canal  Zone  at  Panama.  For 
several  years  past  the  commissary  department  of  the  Panama  Canal 
has  been  taking  an  average  of  40,000  head  per  year  from  the  Sinu 
River  district  in  Bolivar,  and  during  1919  contracts  for  this  district 
alone  amounted  to  100,000  head,  to  be  delivered  during  that  year 
and  up  to  March,  1920. 

During  the  colonial  period  there  was  a  great  surplus  of  land  and 
a  lack  of  labor  in  many  districts  of  the  country,  and  the  natural 
development  was  in  cattle,  since  this  rotjuired  less  capital  and  skilled 
labor,  was  more  easily  transported  to  market  (on  the  hoof),  and 
found  a  steadier  local  demancl  than  other  products.  The  same  con- 
ditions apply  to  a  great  extent  to-dav.  On  the  Caribbean  coast 
there  are  great  areas  of  excellent  level  lands  of  alluvial  formation 

138 


CATTLE   RAISING.  -  139 

which  are  said  to  rival  those  of  Cuba  for  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  rice, 
etc.,  but  which  are  planted  in  Para  grass  and  devoted  to  cattle  rais- 
ing on  account  of  the  scarcity  and  poor  quality  of  available  labor 
and  the  lack  of  large  capital  in  the  country  with  which  to  engage  in 
the  more  costly  agricultural  developments.  Taken  as  a  whole, 
cattle  raising  may  be  said,  in  view  of  its  wide  distribution,  the  num- 
ber of  head  actually  in  the  country,  and  their  value  as  compared 
with  other  products,  to  form  the  chief  wealth  of  Colombia — outrank- 
ing coffee  as  a  national  resource,  though  coffee  is  the  chief  export 
on  which  the  country  relies  for  its  basis  of  exchange  in  trade  for 
imports  of  foreign  manufactured  merchandise. 

In  order  to  convey  some  idea  of  the  value  of  the  cattle  industry, 
it  may  be  stated  that  in  the  Department  of  Bovaca  alone,  as  lon^  ago 
as  1908,  there  were  862,550  head  of  beef  cattle.  They  were  valued, 
at  that  time;  at  only  a  trifle  more  than  88,000,000,  or  about  $10  per 
head,  but  would  now  be  worth — in  the  open  market,  on  the  hoof — -at 
least  an  average  price  of  $30  per  head.  In  addition,  one  must 
consider  the  large  cattle-raising  districts  of  the  Sinu  River  in  Bolivar 
on  the  Caribbean  coast,  the  Cauca  River  Valley  in  western  Colombia, 
the  great  Magdalena  River  Valley,  the  "llanos"  east  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera,  and  the  region  of  the  Fatia  River  in  Narino,  south  of  the 
Cauca  district — all  of  which  produce  a  surplus  of  cattle,  which  are 
sent  into  other  more  populous  regions  of  the  country  at  constantly 
increasing  prices..  It  is  worth  noting  also  that  statistical  returns 
for  cattle  in  Colombia  are  much  below  the  actual  number  of  head, 
on  account  of  the  fear  of  taxation,  apprehension  concerning  possible 
disturbances,  and  the  difficulties  encountered  in  obtaining  accurate 
returns  in  this  broken  and  undeveloped  country. 

On  account  of  the  varying  conditions  in  the  different  regions  of 
Colombia,  the  details  and  figures  with  regard  to  cattle-raising  activ- 
ities are  given  mainly  in  the  separate  district  reports  beginning  on 
page  185. 

VARIED  CHARACTER  OF  THE  INDUSTRY. 

Because  of  the  topography  of  Colombia,  the  lands  devoted  to  cattle 
raising  are  of  varied  character,  but  they  may  be  roughly  divided 
into  two  main  groups — the  level  valley  or  plateau  lands  and  the  foot- 
hill lands.  The  first  division  may  be  roughly  subdivided  into  (1) 
the  lands  of  the  coast  (or  rather  river  valleys  accessible*  to  the  coast, 
such  as  that  of  the  Sinu  and  the  interior  of  the  great  Magdalena 
Valley) ,  (2)  the  high  interior  plateaus,  such  as  that  of  Bogota,  which 
takes  in  the  plains  of  Bovaca,  and  (3)  the  great  undeveloped  and 
very  sparsely  inhabited  "llanos"  or  "pampas  of  the  Orinoco  water- 
shed east  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  wnich  have  practically  no  means 
of  access  to  markets  and  from  which  it  would  be  impossible  to  export 
cattle  in  any  form  under  present  conditions. 

Conditions  in  the  first-named  subdivision  are,  in  general,  those  of 
the  Tropics.  The  lands  consist  of  the  level  valley  lands  lying  along 
the  Rivers  Sinu,  Magdalena,  Cauca,  and  Patia,  and  similar  less  devel- 
oped districts  oif  the  interior,  such  as  the  region  to  the  south  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  near  the  Cesar  River.  The  Cauca  Valley  is  not  so 
tropical  as  the  other  valleys  mentioned,  being  situated  in  the  interior 
between  the  low  range  of  the  Western  Cordillera  and  the  great  Central 
Cordillera  and  having  an  average  elevation  above  sea  level  of  3,000 


140     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK,. 

feet.  However,  conditions  of  cattle  raising  along  the  Cauca  are  very 
similar  to  those  in  the  more  tropical  regions  named. 

In  these  districts,  the  lands  wore  originally  covered  with  a  heavy 
tropical  growth  and  hardwood  timber  and  had  to  be  cleared  and 
burned  off.  It  was  necessary  to  plant  artificial  grass,  such  as  the 
Para,  guinea,  etc.,  and  to  fence  the  pastures.  Ticks  and  dis6ases  are 
rife,  and  cattle  have  to  be  treated  with  serums  for  the  prevention  of 
disease. 

In  the  second  subdivision — ^that  of  the  high  interior  plateaus,  such 
as  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  the  smaller  table-lands  of  Popayan  and 
Pasto,  and  the  new  region  spoken  of  as  lying  east  of  Neiva — the  climate 
is  much  cooler,  the  elevation  being  between  7,000  and  9,000  feet,  with 
a  more  open  country  covered  with  a  good  short  grass  of  excellent  feed 
qualities.  In  these  highlands  imported  breed  stock  thrive,  and  it  is 
around  Bogota  that  the  most  attention  has  been  paid  to  breeding  and 
improving  live  stock  of  all  kinds  found  there.  However,  these  more 
suitable  cattle-raising  sections  do  not  export  the  products  of  the  in- 
dustry— the  distance  and  transportation  costs  to  the  coast  being  too 
great.     They  are  dependent  upon  the  local  markets. 

In  the  third  subdivision,  the  "llanos,"  conditions  are  again  differ- 
ent. The  great  plains  slope  gently  down  from  the  Eastern  Cor- 
dillera toward  the  low  and  very  hot  regions  traversed  by  the  many 
shallow  rivers  tributary  to  the  Orinoco.  Here  are  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  level  land,  the  best  of  which,  from  the  standpoint 
of  cattle  raising,  is  said  to  be  the  area  around  the  headwaters  of  the 
Casanare  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Meta,  which  in  turn  flows  into  the 
Orinoco.  The  Casanare  is  the  part  of  this  great  region  most  devel- 
oped in  cattle  at  the  present  time,  and  there  are  said  to  be  about 
300,000  head  there.  Some  ranches  possess  as  many  as  20,000  head. 
There  are,  in  all,  about  200  ranches  running  cattle  m  the  region,  but 
some  of  them  have  only  a  few  hundred  head  and  a  few  horses.  The 
difficulty  with  these  great  plains  seems  to  be  their  isolation  and  the 
general  inaccessibility  of  markets.  Cattle  can  not  be  driven  even 
into  the  Bogota  market,  because  the  distance  is  too  great  and  the  trip 
over  the  range  is  too  hard  for  them  to  make.  Only  hides  find  their 
way  over  the  range  and  down  via  Tunja  into  the  Bogota  market  for 
eventual  export  via  the  Magdalena. 

It  should  DC  noted  that  there  is  a  distinction  between  the  words 
"llanos"  ancf  "selvas,"  the  former  being  used  to  designate  the  open 
treeless  plains  of  the  northern  portion,  belonging  to  the  Orinoco 
watershed,  and  the  latter  to  designate  the  great  wooded  plains  farther 
south,  which  drain  into  the  Amazon. 

Many  wonderful  descriptions  of  these  "llanos"  may  be  heard  and 
read ;  some  describe  them  as  an  undeveloped  region  of  limitless  wealth, 
while  others  state  that  their  fertility  and  value  have  been  greatly 
overrated.  Certainly,  to-day,  they  can  not  be  recognized  as  an 
economic  factor  in  the  general  wealth  of  Colombia,  since  they  are  too 
distant  and  inaccessible,  and  their  possible  productivity  is  lost  to  the 
country  and  to  the  world. 

There  is  natural  grass — long  grass — in  abundance,  but  the  opinion 
has  been  given  that  this  grass  is  not  very  good  cattle  feed.  However, 
great  herds  could  undoubtedly  be  raised  on  these  vast  plains,  and  in 
the  course  of  many  generations  this  may  come  to  pass  through  eco- 
nomic necessity  as  cattle  lands  are  put  under  cultivation  in  the  United 


CATTLE   RAISING.  141 

States,  Argentina,  and  elsewhere.  But  there  are  many  present-day 
difficulties  and  disadvantages,  chief  among  these  being  (1)  the  dis- 
tance from  the  ocean  and  the  fact  that  the  ''llanos"  are  cut  off 
from  the  rest  of  Colombia  by  great  ranges  of  mountains  through 
which  there  are  no  roads  or  even  trails  worthy  of  the  name;  (2)  the 
great  swamps  and  morasses;  (3)  the  pestilential  climate;  and  (4)  the 
lack  of  uniform  seasons.  For  eight  months  in  the  year  there  is  an 
excess  of  rain,  during  which  period  the  level  lands  become  shallow 
lakes  of  great  extent  and  the  cattle  have  to  be  driven  into  the  benches 
and  low  hills  along  the  range.  During  the  dry  season  the  shallow 
rivers  soon  run  dry  (leaving  great  swamps  and  mud  sinks),  there  is 
Uttle  water  left  in  the  highlands  to  the  west,  and  the  cattle  have  to  be 
taken  down  to  the  better  areas  of  the  lower  plains  again,  where  the 
grass  soon  dries  and  there  is  a  lack  of  water.  (See  '"The  Llanos  and 
the  Selvas,"  in  "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder.) 

In  the  second  main  division  of  cattle-raising  territory  one  may  in- 
clude the  great  variety  of  lands  situated  above  the  level  valleys  and 
consisting  of  the  foothills  and  slopes  of  the  mountain  ranges  at  eleva- 
tions ranging  from  4,000  to  as  high  as  10,000  feet  above  sea  level. 
Here  there  is  cattle  raising  on  a  small  scale;  that  is  to  say,  there  are 
no  large  herd  owners  or  large  extensions  of  fenced  lands,  but,  in  the 
aggregate,  the  number  of  cattle  raised  in  the  hill  lands  is  quite  large. 
Near  the  mountain  towns  and  villages  are  often  found,  also,  small 
pastures  of  artificial  grass  for  the  better  run  of  cattle  and  mUk  stock, 
etc.     This  is  particularly  true  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia. 

The  cattle  found  in  the  liilly  lands  are  always  of  a  poorer  grade  than 
those  in  the  richer  valleys,  the  average  breed  not  going  over  an  average 
fat  weight  of  600  to  800  pounds,  whereas  a  S-year-old  steer  from  the 
Cauca  or  Sinu  Valley,  will  run  up  to  1,000  and  even  as  high  as  1,200 

Eounds  live  weight.     Diseases  are  rife  in  the  hill  country  and  cattle 
ave  to  be  inoculated.     Ticks  are  also  prevalent,  and  there  are  many 
other  insect  pests  that  bother  the  cattle. 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR  FOREIGN  CAPITAL  IN  CATTLE  RAISING. 

There  undoubtedly  exists  an  opportunity  for  good  and  safe  invest- 
ment in  cattle  raising  in  Colombia,  but,  as  has  been  pointed  out, 
conditions  are  very  different  from  what  an  American  cattleman 
would  expect  to  find  or  would  be  accustomed  to.  Large  areas  of 
public  lands  can  still  be  secured  from  the  Government  at  a  very  low 
figure,  but  these  lands,  suitable  for  cattle,  would  be  too  far  from  the 
ocean  and  too  inaccessible  to  afford  any  possible  immediate  return 
on  the  investment — or  it  would  be  a  question  of  another  very  large 
investment  to  afford  a  means  of  transportation.  Usually,  on  such 
an  investment,  returns  could  be  expected  only  in  the  very  distant 
future. 

The  better  lands  lying  in  the  accessible  river  valleys,  from  which 
cattle  can  be  either  exported  or  easily  sent  to  the  markets  of  the 
interior,  haye  long  ago  been  taken  up  by  the  Colombians  and  a  few 
foreigners — that  is  to  say,  in  all  places  where  conditions  are  right 
and  the  lands  are  not  suDJect  to  floods  or  other  damage.  Tracts  of 
good  land  that  could  have  been  purchased  in  Bolivar  for  a  few 
dollars  per  acre  a  few  years  ago  have  recently  increased  in  price  ten- 
fold (or  more,  where  the  lands  have  been  exceptionally  well  located), 


142     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAI.   HANDBOOK. 

and  the  Colombians,  as  has  been  said,  are  being  actively  attracted 
to  cattle  as  an  investment,  and  all  available  and  suitable  new  lands 
are  being  rapidly  cleared  and  put  into  cattle  pasture.  Even  under 
present  conditions,  such  an  investment  would  prove  to  be  an  excellent 
one  if  good  judgment  were  used  as  to  character  of  soil,  location,  etc. 
There  can  be  no  question  that  the  value  of  cattle  in  Colombia  will 
steadilv  increase  as  time  goes  on,  because  not  only  is  the  consumption 
of  beei  in  the  country  itself  increasing  rapidly,  but  the  demand  for 
export  and  for  the  packing  houses  soon  to  be  established  in  the 
country  will  also  increase  the  value  of  cattle  and  cattle  lands. 

Another  factor  to  be  considered  in  connection  with  such  an  invest- 
ment is  the  increasing  value  of  these  lands  (if  properly  located)  for 
sugar  cane,  cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco;  and  it  may  be  predicted  that 
the  rich  alluvial  plains  of  the  Department  of  Bolivar  will  eventually 
rival  Cuba,  this  aevelopment  being  already  started. 

The  Magdalena  Valley  contains  many  areas  of  good  undeveloped 
land,  where,  in  certain  respects,  conditions  are  similar  to  those  on 
the  Sinu  River.  But  the  Magdalena  districts  are  not  so  near  the 
coast  and  are  dependent  upon  the  river  as  a  means  of  transportation. 
And  there  is  the  additional  disadvantage  that  they  are  subject  to 
floods  hnd  the  possibility  of  being  cut  away  by  the  constantlv  chang- 
ing channel  of  the  river.  Generally,  in  the  Magdalena  Valley,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  cattle  to  be  provided  with  prepared  pastures  in  the 
foothills  or  higher  lands  out  of  the  valley  during  the  stages  of  high 
water. 

Even  in  the  Cauca  Valle;y  there  is  little  suitable  land  left  for  sale  or 
location,  so  far  as  the  acquisition  of  a  large  undeveloped  tract  is  con- 
cerned, though  there  is  room  for  the  expansion  of  the  cattle  industry 
there.  The  number  of  head  now  pastured  could  easily  be  doubledf, 
according  to  a  careful  survey  and  estimates  made  in  1919.  If  han- 
dling facilities  were  improved  or  a  packinghouse  provided,  the  Cauca 
Valley  could,  at  the  present  time,  export  a  surplus  of  40,000  head 
per  annum,  besides  the  great  numbers  now  being  taken  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Antioquia;  and  this  surplus  cattle  production  could  be  easily 
doubled.  Good  lands  here  are  also  increasing  rapidly  in  value  and 
are  being  more  and  more  used  for  sugar  cane  and  rice  cultivation, 
though  this  latter  development  is  greatly  hampered  by  the  lack  of 
sufficient  and  efficient  laoor — the  same  condition  obtaining  in  the 
Sinu  and  Magdalena  River  Valleys  and  elsewhere  in  the  country 
with  the  exception  of  the  Bogota  region.  A  great  deal  can  be  accom- 
plished, however,  even  in  the  face  of  these  conditions,  with  the  appli- 
cation to  agriculture  of  modern  methods  and  machinery. 

Viewing  the  cattle-raising  and  agricultural  problem  in  Colombia 
from  the  standpoint  of  investment,  the  experiences  and  decisions  of 
Danish  experts  who  surveyed  the  entire  country  in  1919  may  be 
cited  here.  These  people  were  large  owners  of  fine  stock  and  modem 
farms  in  Denmark  and  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  of  the  United  States 
and  were  looking  for  large  tracts  of  cheap  land  for  development  in  a 
new  country.  After  spending  some  time  on  the  Sinu  River,  around 
the  Cartagena  district,  and  south  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  mountain 

Soup,  reviewing  the  Magdalena  River  Valley,  inspecting  the  table- 
nds  of  Bogota  and  Boyaca,  and  visiting  the  famous  Cauca  Valley, 
they  came  to  the  conclusion  that,  for  them,  the  coast,  while  most 
accessible  and  valuable,  was  too  tropical  for  their  people  and  that 


CATTLE   BAISING.  143 

the  better  lands  in  the  higher  altitudes  of  the  interior  were  too  inac- 
cessible for  present  development  on  a  large  scale  by  a  colony  from 
northern  countries. 

The  official  census  of  cattle  compiled  by  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment in  1915  places  the  total  number  of  horned  cattle  in  the  country 
at  7,000,000.  As  has  been  remarked,  these  official  figures  may  be 
regarded  as  extremely  low,  and  the  figure  of  9,000,000  or  even 
10,000,000  would  probably  be  more  accurate. 

MARKET  FOR  SERUMS,  CONDITION  POWDERS,  ETC. 

On  account  of  the  ticks,  and  the  general  prevalence  of  diseases 
among  the  live  stock  of  the  country,  Colombia  presents  a  readv  and 
wide  market  for  live-stock  serums  and  remedies  of  many  kinds. 
The  practice  of  inoculation  is  becoming  very  general.  In  1919  there 
was  a  shortage  of  syringes  for  inoculation  purposes,  since  a  sufficient 
supply  could  not  be  obtained  from  France,  which  furnished  most  of 
such  articles  prior  to  the  war.  Colombian  firms  interested  in  the 
sale  of  live-stock  remedies  were  endeavoring  to  secure  a  supply  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Pasteur  Institute  cattle  and  live-stock  serums  are  very  weU 
known  in  Colombia,  being  handled  by  a  well-organized  firm  in 
Medellin.  In  1919  an  American  laboratory  firm  became  interested 
in  the  market,  its  agent  having  headquarters  in  Bogota. 

A  Colombian  firm  manufacturing  condition  powders  from  materials 
imported  from  the  United  States  was  enjoying  wide  success  in  1919 
and  was  doing  considerable  advertising,  which  was  paying  more 
than  well.  The  main  difficulty  confronting  the  introduction  of 
American  condition  powders  and  similar  veterinary  remedies  lies  in 
the  high  import  duty,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  compete  on  an 
equal  oasis  with  similar  goods  manufactured  in  the  country,  there 
being  a  great  saving  effected  in  duties  if  the  materials  alone  are 
imported  and  put  up  in  the  country. 

A  laboratory  firm  in  Bogota,  of  which  one  of  thp  partners  is  a 
foreigner,  is  endeavoring  to  put  cattle  serums  on  the  market  in 
Colombia  and,  in  time,  will  be  able  to  compete  very  favorably  with 
the  imported  articles  in  this  line. 

COLOMBUN   EXPORTS   OF  UVE   STOCK  AND   ANIMAL  PRODUCTS. 

Notwithstanding  the  number  of  cattle  in  the  countrv,  the  favorable 
rate  of  increase,  the  improved  attention  to  the  industry,  and  the 
increased  investments  in  cattle  as  compared  with  the  population, 
conditions  for  the  future  of  cattle  exports  from  Colombia  are  not 
very  favorable,  on  the  whole,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the 
Colombian  people  are  meat  eaters  and  the  consumption  of  beef, 
even  among  the  poorest  classes,  is  very  high — higher,  in  fact,  than 
in  any  other  Latm  American  country.  Judging  irom  the  consump- 
tion of  beef  cattle  in  Antioquia  in  relation  to  the  population,  it 
would  appear  that  beef  forms  tne  principal  article  of  diet  of  the  people 
as  a  whole;  and,  while  the  numbers  of  cattle  and  the  new  pastures 
opened  have  increased  greatly  during  the  past  few  years,  the 
domestic  consumption  has  also  increased,  beef  cattle  being  the 
chief  article  of  trade  between  one  Department  and  another  and 


144     (COLOMBIA:    A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK. 

between  one  district  and  another.  The  Magdalcna  River  Valley  is 
little  developed  in  cattle,  as  yet,  and  on  account  of  conditions  there 
can  not  be  counted  on  for  any  large  production  of  beef  cattle.  The 
plains  of  Boyaca  are  too  far  in  the  interior  to  be  counted  on  for 
export  until  a  railway  taps  them,  as  has  been  projected  by  the 
Department  of  Antioquia,  which  is  surveying  a  line  across  the 
MagdaJena  via  the  coal  fields  of  Velez  in  Santander  and  on  into 
Boyaca  (this  line  aims  primarily  to  develop  the  cattle  lands  of 
Boyaca  and  to  obtain  coal  for  the  Nus  division  of  the  Antioquia 
Railway) .  This  situation  practically  confines  the  sources  of  export 
to  the  Sinu  region,  the  alluvial  plains  of  Bolivar  south  of  Cartagena 
(where  the  number  of  head  can  be  doubled  in  10  years'  time),  and 
the  Cauca  Valley  (which  can,  by  increasing  artificially  planted 
lands  and  the  number  of  breed  cattle,  export  possibly  80,000  head 
per  annum) . 

The  Colombian  Government  has  paid  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
the  encouragement  of  the  cattle  industry  and  of  packing-house 
projects.  New  laws  have  been  passed  regulating  packing  houses 
and  providing  also  for  the  loan  of  additional  capital  by  the  con- 
cessionaires to  cattle  and  land  owners  for  the  stimulation  of  the 
industry. 

The  drying  and  salting  of  meat  for  export  has  been  inaugurated 
in  Tolu,  Department  of  Bolivar,  according  to  a  report  from  the 
American  consulate  at  Cartagena.  The  enterprise  at  present  is 
comparatively  small.  The  animals  are  kept  from  feeding  36  hours 
before  being  killed,  in  order  to  season  the  meat.  After  it  is  stripped 
off  the  "meat  is  carried  into  the  sea  and  dipped  for  salting.  After 
this  treatment  it  can  be  conserved  for  four  or  five  months.  In  the 
Cartagena  markets  the  dried  meat  has  a  fair  sale. 

On  September  18,  1919,  the  Panama  Star  and  Herald  published 
an  article  announcing  the  fact  that  an  American  concern  associated 
with  prominent  cattle  raisers  of  Colombia  had  formed  an  organization 
to  engage  in  meat  packing  at  Cispata,  Colombia.  The  contract 
between  this  new  company  and  the  Government  of  Colombia  was 
signed  about  August  29.  Construction  of  the  plant  was  expected 
to  start  at  an  early  date. 

Cispata,  which  is  the  port  on  the  north  Colombian  coast -at  the 
mouth  of  the  Sinu  River,  has  shipped  large  numbers  of  cattle  to 
Panama  during  the  past  few  years.  Pasture  land  suflicient  to  take 
care  of  75,000  to  100,000  head  of  cattle  a  year  has  already  been 
acquired  by  the  company,  and  it  is  estimated  that  in  3  or  4  years 
the  Colombian  plant  will  have  an  annual  output  of  150,000  head  of 
cattle.  The  plans  of  the  company,  moreover,  provide  hot  only  for 
the  erection  of  a  packing  plant,  but  also  for  the  development  of  the 
cattle  business.  Money  will  be  advanced  to  the  cattle  raisers,  and 
thoroughbred  cattle  will  be  imported  for  the  improvement  of  the 
herds.  Experienced  cattle  raisers  from  the  great  cattle-raisin^ 
districts  of  the  United  States  and  South  America  will  be  employed 
as  instructors  in  aiding  the  cattlemen  to  improve  the  breed  of  their 
herds. 

Colombian  Government  statistics  for  1911,  a  prewar  year,  give  a 
total  value  of  92,852  Colombian  dollars  for  the  live  animals  exported, 
of  which  the  United  States  took  4,558  dollars'  worth,  Cuba  78,716 
dollars'  worth,  and  Panama  8,481  dollars'  worth.     These  returns 


CATTLE   RAISING. 


145 


represent  chiefly  live  beef  cattle  shipped  to  Cuba,  with  which  country 
there  was  carried  on  for  many  years  a  small  trade  in  cattle  by  means 
of  small  sailing  vessels  and  trading  schooners,  plying  between  Cuban 
ports  and  Cartagena  and  the  Sinu.  The  cattle  trade  with  Panama, 
small  in  1911,  has  since  rapidly  increased  to  the  high  figure  of  100,000 
head  in  1919-20,  the  Canal  commissary  department  taking  an  increas- 
ing amount  of  beef  for  the  supply  of  the  Canal  Zone  and  for  ships' 
Erovisions  there.  Packing  and  refrigeration  facilities  at  Panama 
ave  been  doubled  recently,  and  the  Canal  will  need  a  steadily 
increasing  amount  of  beef  as  traffic  becomes  heavier. 

In  1911  animal  products — chiefly  hides — ^exported  from  Colombia 
were  as  follows:  Germany,  554,974  kilos  (kilo  =  2.2046  pounds), 
valued  at  206,308  Colombian  doUars;  Spain,  189,348  kilos,  valued 
at  75,739  dollars;  United  States,  2,717,042  kilos,  valued  at  1,050,115 
dollars;  France,  130,928  kilos,  valued  at  67,637  dollars;  Great 
Britain,  721,759  kilos,  valued  at  256,835  dollars;  Panama,  1,185  kilos, 
valued  at  104  dollars;  other  countries  (principally  Cuba),  735,215 
kilos,  valued  at  303,670  doUars;  total  5,050,452  kilos,  valued  at 
1,960,409  doUars. 

In  1916  Colombia  exported  live  animals  to  the  value  of  521,905 
Colombian  dollars,  principally  beef  cattle  to  Panama  and  Cuba. 
This  same  year  animal  products — chiefly  hides — amounted  to  7,215,- 
022  kilos,  valued  at  3,115,250  dollars.  Cartagena  shipped  a  total 
of  467,086  dollars'  worth  of  live  animals,  principally  beef  cattle  on 
the  hoof,  to  Panama.  The  exports  of  animal  products  by  ports  in 
1916  were  as  follows: 

[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Ports  of  shipment. 


Barranquilla.. 
Buenaventura 
Cartagena .... 

Cucuta 

Meta 


Kilos. 

Value. 

Colombian 
dollars. 

4,800,016 

1,938,689 

630,513 

330,122 

1, 082, 951 

492, 581 

111,159 

58,274 

50.216 

19,675 

Ports  of  shipment. 


Rio  Hacha . . 
Santa  Marta 
Tumaco 

Total. 


Kilos. 


108,409 
196, 978 
234,  779 


7, 215, 022 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
55,263 
103, 974 
116,673 


3,115,251 


The  above  table  furnishes  a  very  good  idea  of  the  chief  hide- 
exporting  regions  of  the  country.  Barranquilla  ships  hides  from  the 
Magdalena  Valley,  Santander,  Tolima,  Antioquia,  northern  Bolivar 
(part),  Bo^aca,  Huila,  and  Cundinamarca,  as  a  general  thing,  while 
Cartagena  is  credited  with  a  small  portion  of  the  movement  of  hides 
down  the  Magdalena  (possibly  25  per  cent  of  the  total)  and  those  from 
the  Sinu  region  and  northern  Bolivar.  Buenaventura  handles  the 
hides  from  the  Cauca  Valley  and  the  Popayan  district,  Tumaco 
handles  those  from  the  Patia  River  and  Pasto  districts,  while 
Cucuta  ships  the  hides  from  the  region  of  Norte  de  Santander  out 
by  way  of  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela.  Rio  Hacha  handles  the  hides 
from  the  cattle  ranches  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  and  the  Valle  Dupar 
region  farther  to  the  south,  and  Santa  Marta  ships  hides  from  the 
region  south  of  the  banana  district  as  far  as  the  Cesar  River  and  the 
district  south  of  the  Sierra  Nevadas. 


37558°— 21- 


-10 


146     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

To  convey  an  idea  of  the  relative  values  of  the  exports  of  the 
different  live  animals,  the  following  table  is  given,  covering  the  year 
1916: 


Kinds. 


Head. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


Live  animals,  n.  e.  s 

Birds 

Snakes 

Canaries 

Cattle  (beef) 

Horses 

H(«s 

Asses 

Mules 

Sheep 

Lizards  ("iguanas  ") 

Parrots  and  parrakeets . . . 

Monkeys 

Red  owLs  ("  Mochuelos") . 
Tigers  ("  tigrillos"). 


39 

1,163 

11 

35 

15,809 

21 

76 

3 

28 

1 

25 

235 

45 


600 

1,785 


6,826,686 

2,600 

3,943 

100 

3,040 

12 


50 
500 


Total 17,492      6,83Q,316 


Colombian 
doUam. 

232 
1,013 


514,441 

2,430 

1,121 

100 

900 

1 


30 
60!) 


620,978 


The  exports  of  animal  products  in  1916,  given  above  by  ports,  are 
shown  below  by  articles: 


Kinds. 


Crocodile  skins 
Cattle  hides . . . 

Calfskins 

Goatskins ' 

Tiger  skins 

Sheepskins'... 

Deerskins 

Bird  skins 

Horns 

Tortoise  shell.. 

Horsehair 

Pearl  shell .... 


Kilos. 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

24 

5 

7,003,233 

2,993,919 

5,551 

3,233 

74,855 

44,428 

22 

53 

57,627 

38,614 

5,732 

1,937 

213 

2,898 

44,543 

8,409 

4,360 

8,211 

1,034 

925 

12,589 

924 

Kinds. 


Turtle  shell 

Salt  beef 

y^C.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 

Hog  lard 

Butter 

Pearls 

Heron  plumes  (aigrettes) 

Cheese 

Tallow 

Total 


Kilos. 


83 

65 
380 
548 

55 

23 
1.9 
225.65 
200 
3,657 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

496 

13 

468 

132 

20 

33 

1,200 

8,740 

30 

563 


7,215,021.55     3,115,251 


•  Principally  from  Rio  Hacha. 

*  From  Bogota  and  Mani'-ales. 

Hides  rank  third  in  importance  among  the  exports  from  Colombia, 
coffee  being  first  and  minerals  second.  Of  the  animal  products 
listed,  beef  hides  constitute  a  little  more  than  96  per  cent  of  the 
total.  Exports  of  hides  from  Colombia  for  the  past  13  years  have 
been  as  follows: 


Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

1906 

4,822,894 
3,659,171 
3,626,321 
5,588,205 
4,694,002 
4, 449. 475 
5,167,639 

Colombian 
dollars. 
1,251,446 
1,151.338 
1,216,826 
1,849,  €40 
1,533,098 
1,779,790 
2, 661, 722 

1913      

5,234,593 
4, 662, 724 
6,333,175 
7,00.3,231 
7,904,398 
4,527,147 

Colombian 
dollars. 
3, 180,  782 

1907 

1914 

2,704,380 

1908 

1915 

3,859,005 
2,993,919 
4,374,440 
2.987,917 

1909 

1916 

1910 

1917 

1911 

1918 

1912 

CATTLE   RAISING. 


147 


The  low  export  return  for  1918  is  due  to  the  entrance  of  the  United 
States  into  the  war  and  the  consequent  lack  of  tonnage  for  ocean  trans- 
port. Hides  steadily  increased  in  the  country  in  direct  relation 
to  the  increasing  herds  of  cattle,  but  were  to  a  great  extent  stored 
during  1918.  Exports  of  hides  from  Colombia  to  the  United  States 
were  exceptionally  heavy  during  all  of  1919,  particularly  during  the 
first  half  of  that  year  (representing  part  of  the  1918  production  of 
hides  in  the  interior),  this  movement  being  stimulated  by  the  high 
prices  being  obtained  in  1919  for  good  beef  hides. 

METHOD  OF  TRADING  IN  HIDES  AND  SKINS. 

Nearly  all  the  hides  and  skins  shipped  from  Colombia  are  handled 
by  exporters  and  merchants  of  the  coast  who  have  agencies  or  branches 
in  the  interior.  Merchants  receive  shipments  of  hides  from  their 
clients  in  the  interior  and  also  from  their  branch  houses,  which  trade 
goods  for  them  to  the  natives  and  small  dealers  of  the  interior. 
Contractors  for  the  municipal  slaughterhouse  privileges  are  also 
direct  exporters  of  hides,  usually  dealing  with  some  commission 
house  in  New  York  for  their  disposal  and  sale  on  open  account. 

The  following  table  shows  the  United  States  customs  returns  of 
hides  and  skins  received  from  Colombia  during  four  recent  years : 


Kinds. 


Fiscal  year  1916. 


Pounds.     Value 


Fiscal  year  1917. 


Calendar  year  1918. 


Pounds.     Value 


Pounds.     Value. 


Calendar  year  1919. 


Pounds.     Value, 


Calfskins: 

Dry 

Green  or  pickled  - 
Cattle  hides: 

Dry 

Green  or  pickled . 

Goatskins 

Sheepskins 

All  other 


10,334 


$2,461 


10,622,874 

113,804 

135, 515 

95 

11,715 


2,535,402 
17,326 
41,835 
57 
2, 


50,407 
743 

14,789,299 
550,742 
316, 938 

7,' 

5,540 


$15, 120 
171 

4,102,029 

128,506 

134, 485 

3,988 

2,430 


26,681 
244 

7, 064, 013 

458,811 

110,531 

4,995 

58,230 


$10,622 
61 

,278,091 

96,671 

53,345 

1,368 

7,095 


125,075 
27,078 


100,484 

360,835 

16,631 

258,145 


$58,498 


,  469, 615 

576, 507 

246, 133 

9,204 

38, 615 


Total. 


10,894,337 


2,599,927 


15,720,749  4,386,729 


7,723,505 


15, 767, 141 


5,407,381 


During  and  since  the  war  the  United  States  has  been  receiving  at 
least  90  per  cent  of  all  the  hides  and  skins  shipped  from  Colomoia. 

The  standard  for  packing  hides  for  shipment  is  that  of  the  ruling 
by  the  United  States  Railroad  Administration,  Official  Classification 
Committee,  adopted  in  1918.  The  rulings  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  apply  with  regard  to  inspection  and  prevention  of  dis- 
eases. All  shipments  of  hides  from  Colombia  have  to  be  certified  to 
by  the  American  consular  representatives  regarding  fumigation  and 
sanitary  treatment,  to  comply  with  the  requirements  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  concerning  prevention  of  disease. 


LIVE-STOCK  BREEDING. 


Except  in  the  Bogota  district,  there  has  been  little  attempt  in  Co- 
lombia to  improve  the  breed  of  cattle,  although  the  native  stock,  with 
the  exception  of  that  in  Antioquia,  is  not  bad.  In  the  Bogota  region 
there  are  a  number  of  Polled  Angus,  Durhams,  and  Ayrshire  cattle, 
and  a  few  "Cebu"  bulls  have  been  imported  into  the  Sinu  River 
Valley  and  the  Magdalena  Valley,  where  they  give  excellent  results 


148      (COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK, 

in  producing  a  crossbreed  which  is  free  from  ticks  and  less  bony, 
carrying  more  beef,  and  being,  in  general,  more  free  from  tropical 
cattle  diseases  than  the  native  stocK.  This  crossing  has  given  very 
excellent  results  with  the  herds  of  the  United  Fruit  Co.  at  Santa 
Marta,  where  oxen  are  used  in  the  banana  plantations  for  hauling — 
oxen  working  better  in  the  soft ,  wet  ground  tnan  mules  of  the  country, 
wfeich  are  too  small  and  light. 

Law  No.  73  of  1916  provided  for  a  one-third  rebate  on  the  cost  of 
animals  imported  for  breeding  purposes  into  Colombia.  This  cost 
includes  the  original  cost  of  the  animals,  freight,  insurance,  etc.,  to 
deliv^:3:^^oiiit^  The  pedigree,  certificate  of  inspection,  etc.,  from  the 
country  of  origin  must  be  presented,  and  the  original  owner  in  Co- 
lombia can  not  resell  the  animals  on  which  this  rebate  is  secured 
within  four  years'  time.  The  maximum  rebate  allowed  for  bulls  is 
300  Colombian  dollars,  for  horses  300  dollars,  and  for  hogs  40  dollars. 
As  high  as  80  dollars  is  allowed  for  rams. 

The  Colombian  Government  maintains  no  organized  veterinary 
service,  and  there  is  room  for  much  work  in  this  line,  since  cattle 
suffer  from  many  diseases,  including  tuberculosis. 

Law  No.  73  of  1916  provided  lor  an  annual  appropriation  of 
50,000  Colombian  dollars  for  the  promotion  of  cattle  fairs  throuojh- 
out  the  chief  trading  centers  of  the  country,  and  a  like  sum  to  be  dis- 
tributed for  the  aid  of  the  importation  of  breed  stock  into  Colombia. 

It  has  been  estimated  that  the  great  plains  of  the  Orinoco  water- 
shed are  capable  of  supporting  180,000,000  head  of  cattle,  and  that 
there  are  250,000  square  miles  of  cattle  lands  in  the  country.  The 
industry  is  undoubtedly  capable  of  large  expansion.^ 

HOG  RAISING, 

Prior  to  the  war,  not  enough  hogs  were  raised  in  Colombia  to  supply 
the  country  with  sufficient  lard  for  domestic  consumption,  and  this 
was  true  especially  of  the  coast  regions,  where  large  quantities  of 
lard  were  imported  every  year  from  the  United  States.  At  the 
present  time — as  a  result  of  the  increase  in  local  production — no  lard 
IS  imported  for  local  consumption  on  the  Caribbean  coast,  the  small 
quantities  imported  going  to  the  Pacific  coast,  which  is  not  as  de- 
veloped as  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  Bogota  region  now  produces 
a  surplus  of  lard,  which  is  shipped  to  Santander,  Tolima,  and  An- 
tioquia  (lard  was  never  imported  in  large  amounts  that  far  in  the 
interior,  on  account  of  the  high  freight  cost) .  The  industry  has  been 
protected  by  a  higher  import  tariff,  and  hogs  are  being  raised  all  over 
the  country,  not  on  a  large  scale  in  any  case  out,  in  the  aggregate,  very 
numerous  and  more  than  sufficient  to  supply  domestic  needs.  Little 
attention  is  paid  to  breeding,  however,  and  the  average  native  hog  is 
small  and  of  the  razorback  variety.  In  the  rural  districts  and  in  the 
small  villages  of  the  country,  nearly  every  house  and  hut  has  from 
one  to  half  a  dozen  hogs  tied  in  the  yard  for  fattening,  and  the  breed 
may  be  said  to  have  become  as  numerous  as  the  chickens,  being 

I  Persons  desiring  additional  information  concerning  cattle  and  live  stock  in  Colombia  may  bo  referred  to 
"Colombia,"  by  Levine,  pp.  108-109;  South  American  Yearbook  1915,  p.  504;  Panama  Canal  Records, 
Jan.  IC,  1918;  Bulletin  of  tne  Pan-American  Union,  Feb.,  1918,  pp.  1>Q-1S3;  "  Disposiciones  I^galcs  y 
Reglamentarias  dclos  Packing  House  en  Colombia,  1917."  A  comprehensive  article  on  the  cattle-raising 
industry  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar  was  pubUshed  in  Commerce  Reports  for  July  2, 1919.  An  account 
of  the  Colombian  law  on  packing  houses  appeared  in  Commerce  Reports  for  June  12, 1918. 


CATTLE   KAISING.  149 

found  everywhere.  Droves  of  hogs  are  frequently  encountered  on  the 
trails  between  the  towns  of  the  interior,  on  their  way  to  market. 

Exports  from  the  Sinu  River  region  to  the  Panama  Canal  average 
400  head  of  live  hogs  per  week,  with  approximately  1,000  40-pound 
cans  of  lard. 

With  the  establishment  of  the  large  packing  house  at  Cispata,  near 
the  mouth  of  the 'Sinu  River,  which  will  have  a  yearly  capacity  of  at 
least  20,000  head  of  "smaller  animals"  (i.  e.,  hogs),  the  industry  of 
hog  raising  will  receive  an  additional  impetus  in  this  region  and 
should  prove  to  be  a  very  profitable  business,  since  corn  is  easily 
grown  without  the  use  of  plows  or  other  tools  than  the  ax  and  ma- 
chete and  at  ledst  two  (and,  in  the  better  lands  nearer  the  river, 
three)  crops  can  be  secured  annually.  With  the  instruction  and 
help  of  experts  to  educate  the  people  in  the  proper  care  of  these  ani- 
mals, and  with  the  importation  of  good  breed  stock  to  secure  in- 
creased size  and  lard  weight,  hog  raising  in  the  Sinu  and  Bolivar 
region  will  provide  an  additional  source  of  wealth. 

DAIRYING— IMPORTS  OF  CHEESE  AND  BUTTER. 

As  an  industry,  dairying  is  almost  unknown  in  Colombia.  Except 
in  three  districts,  dairy  products  are  almost  unknown,  and  it  is  only 
in  the  Bogota  region  that  fine  dairy  cattle  are  found  and  that  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  the  industry  in  a  modern  and  scientific  way. 

Throughout  the  coast  regions  and  in  the  interior  hot  valleys  and 
low  foothills,  dairying  is  in  a  very  primitive  state.  Cows  give  an 
average  of  only  2  quarts  of  milk  a  day,  and  do  not  give  up  their 
milk  unless  the  calf  is  tied  to  them.  A  very  poor,  tasteless  grade  of 
cheese  is  made,  but  butter  is  made  only  near  Medellin  (of  very  poor 
grade)  and  near  Bogota,  where  only  about  10  per  cent  of  the  people 
use  butter  at  all.  In  the  coast  regions  butter  is  almost  unknown, 
except  of  the  imported  tinned  variety;  a  small  creamery,  near  Cis- 
pata, of  the  Diego  Martinez  Co.,  is  now  making  small  amounts  of 
tinned  butter  for  local  consumption,  but  this  product  is  used  only 
on  the  tables  of  the  very  wealthy  (and  even  then  not  as  a  general 
thing) . 

Near  Bogota  there  are  a  number  of  very  fine  ranches  owned  by 
wealthy  people  of  the  capital  who  have  imported  small  creamery 
outfits  of  machinery,  separators,  etc.,  and  manufacture  a  very  excel- 
lent qualitv  of  butter,  which  is  sold  in  the  Bogota  market.  Here 
also  several  kinds  of  very  good  cheese  are  made,  competing  in  quality 
and  price  with  the  best  foreign  Camembert,  Rochefort,  etc.  The 
dairy  industry  even  here,  however,  is  limited. 

In  other  parts  of  the  country  cheese  is  made  thus :  The  milk  is  put 
in  a  long,  narrow,  handmade  wooden  trough.  Then  the  rennet 
(calf's  stomach)  is  immersed  to  curdle  the  milk.  The  curdled  milk 
is  pressed  by  hand  until  the  whey  rises,  and  when  this  has  all  been 
removed,  the  stuff"  remaining — called  cheese — is  rubbed  for  about 
half  an  hour  with  the  hands.  When  it  is  of  the  right  consistency, 
coarse  salt  is  added  and  the  mass  is  pressed  into  wooden  molds  of 
various  sizes.  This  so-called  cheese  sells  at  an  average  price  (in 
1919)  of  30  cents  per  pound  of  500  grams  (half  a  kilo). 


150     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

In  most  of  the  so-called  "dairies"  or  milking  ranches  where  the 
cows  are  collected  during  the  calving  season,  blackleg  is  very  preva- 
lent, as  the  calves  are  separated  from  the  cows  for  long  periods  with 
no  protection  from  the  sun  and  without  food  or  water.  In  the  dry 
seasons  the  corrals  are  covered  with  inches  of  dust  and  in  the  rainy 
season  with  even  deeper  mud. 

In  1916  Colombia  imported  a  total  of  37,104  kilos  of  tinned  butter, 
valued  at  19,613  Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States 
currency),  on  which  duties  of  6,175  dollars  were  collected  by  the 
Customs.  Imports  of  cheese  during  the  same  year  amounted  to 
100,021  kilos,  valued  at  18,052  dollars,  on  which  duties  of  3,113 
dollars  were  collected.  The  duty  on  cheese  amounts  to  9  cents  per 
pound  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  package.  Most  of  these  imports 
are  handled  by  the  fancy-grocery  importers,  and  Bogota  is  the  best 
market.  A  well-known  American  brand  of  tinned  cheese  is  becoming 
very  popular  with  the  better  class  of  people.  Onlv  about  10  per 
cent  of  the  population  can  afford  to  buy  imported  cneese  or  tinned 
butter. 

These  imports  of  tinned  butter  and  cheese  will  increase  and  may 
be  said  to  nave  almost  doubled  in  1919  over  the  figures  given  above 
for  1916.  However,  the  great  bulk  of  the  population  is  so  poor  and 
the  climate  so  bad  for  shipments  that  no  great  market  can  be 
looked  for. 


AGRICULTURE. 

INTRODUCTION. 

Agricultural  products  in  Colombia  are  as  varied  as  the  topography 
and  the  chmate.  All  sorts  of  soil  and  climate  are  found,  from  those 
of  the  extreme  Tropics  to  those  of  the  Temperate  Zones;  and  the 
products  vary  accordingly,  from  bananas,  sugar  cane,  and  tobacco 
in  the  low,  hot  lands  to  wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  etc.,  in  the  high 
plateaus  of  the  interior. 

The  topography  of  the  country  greatl;^  affects  agriculture.  The 
inhabited  portion  of  Colombia  is  in  the  main  extremely  mountainous ; 
the  areas  of  level,  accessible  lands  suitable  for  the  development  of 
agriculture  on  a  large  scale  are  few  and,  in  comparison  with  the  vast 
size  of  the  country,  are  limited  in  extent.  This  statement  is  made  in 
relation  to  the  country  as  a  whole  and  does  not  mean  that  there  is 
not  room  for  great  expansion  in  agriculture  in  Colombia.  As  a  mat- 
ter of  fact,  in  view  of  the  general  lertility  of  the  soil  and  other  condi- 
tions, there  is  vast  room  for  expansion  of  the  industry  in  many  of  its 
branches.  Colombia's  production  of  vegetable  products  is  limited 
onlv  by  the  general  scarcity  of  efficient  labor  in  the  coast  regions 
anci  in  the  two  important  interior  valleys  and  by  the  general  lack  of 
capital  with  which  to  undertake  development  on  a  large  scale. 

Coffee  is  the  economic  salvation  of  this  mountainous  country. 
Colombia  is  now,  since  the  war,  self-supporting  so  far  as  other  staple 
foodstuffs  are  concerned,  with  the  exception  of  rice,  in  which  domes- 
tic production  is  being  rapidly  increased  and  bids  fair  not  only  to 
supply  the  needs  of  the  country  but  in  a  few  years  to  furnish  a  small 
surplus  for  export.  But  coffee  furnishes  the  basis  for  the  balance  in 
foreign  trade,  outranking  all  other  exports  by  a  very  wide  margin. 
The  situation  of  the  coffee  crops  of  the  country  constitutes  the  key 
to  the  buying  power  of  Colombia  as  regards  imported  goods  and 
articles. 

Coffee  grows  on  the  steep  slopes  of  the  mountains  at  elevations 
varying  from  a  few  hundred  feet  to  as  high  as  9,000  feet  above  sea 
level,  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country,  on  lands  that  could  not  be 
used  for  any  other  purpose.  Few  tools  or  equipment  other  than  the 
universal  machete  are  required,  and  there  is  no  cultivation  other 
than  that  of  chopping  out  the  larger  weeds  between  the  rows  of  trees. 
Very  little  labor  is  required  other  than  that  for  picking  the  ripe  berries, 
for  which  unskilled  labor  is  employed.  Women  and  cliildren  work  as 
well  as  the  men,  the  ripe  coffee  berries  containing  the  beans  being 
merely  stripped  from  the  branches  of  the  low  coffee  trees  and  carried 
to  the  drying  places.  The  machinery  required  for  shelling  and 
husking  the  beans  is  not  complicated  or  expensive,  and  large  plants 
are  not  necessary. 

151 


152      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL   AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

To  give  an  idea  of  the  relative  importance  of  the  several  divisions  of 
ColoniDian  exports,  the  following  figures  are  reproduced  from  the 
Colombian  Government  returns  for  1918: 


(Colombian  dollar  -  S0.9733.] 


Tt  roups. 


Live  animals 

Animal  pro<liicts 

Mineral  |iro<iiicls 

VeRetablc  pro<liicts 

Manufactured  products 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
1,432,184 
3,090,378 
5, 740,  752 

25,784,369 
1,524,527 


Percent- 
age of 
total. 


3.80 
8.19 
15.21 
68.34 
4.04 


Groups. 


Miscellaneous 

Money ' , 

Parcel-post  exports 

Total 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
22,148 

35,  .589 
98, 612 


37,728,559 


Percent- 
age of 
total. 


0.06 
.10 
.26 


100.00 


The  group  of  vegetable  products  is  composed  chiefly  of  coffee, 
which  forms  more  than  80  per  cent  of  the  total,  or  56  per  cent  of  all 
exports — the  coffee  exported  during  1918  being  valued  at  20,675,024 
Colombian  dollars. 

The  values  above  indicated  are  arbitrary  ones  placed  by  the  Gov- 
ernment on  exports,  the  valuation  for  each  month's  returns  being 
taken  from  the  average  price  for  the  preceding  three  months,  as  the 
statistics  are  being  made  up.  Compared  with  actual  market  prices 
obtained,  these  figures  are  quite  low. 

TOPOGRAPHIC  AND  CLIMATIC  AGRICULTURAL  DIVISIONS. 

Colombia  may  be  roughly  divided  into  four  main  zones — first,  the 
coast  zone,  including  both  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coast  regions; 
second,  the  low  foothills  and  valleys  of  the  interior  up  to  an  elevation 
of  about  3,000  feet  above  sea  level;  third,  the  low  hills  and  first 
ranges  of  the  Andes  up  to  elevations  of  possibly  6,000  feet  (the  coflFee 
country) ;  and,  fourth,  the  higher  ranges  and  plateaus  more  than  6,000 
feet  above  sea  level. 

Conditions  of  climate  are  very  different  in  these  four  main  zones. 
The  difference  between  the  Caribbean  and  the  Pacific  coasts  is  also 
very  marked;  in  the  former  region  the  seasons  are  well  indicated — 
from  December  to  May,  dry,  and  from  June  to  December,  wet — 
while  on  the  Pacific  coast,  especially  in  the  northern  part  above 
Buenaventura,  it  rains  nearly  every  day  and  the  precipitation  is  as 
heavy  as  anywhere  in  the  Tropics.  Both  coasts  are  hot  and  damp, 
the  temperature  registering  a  high  average  of  95°  F.  Conditions 
throughout  the  Magdalena  Valley,  as  far  up  as  Girardot,  are  the 
same,  in  general,  as  for  the  Caribbean  coast,  tnough  the  upper  valley 
usually  receives  somewhat  more  rain  than  the  lower,  more  level 
reaches  of  the  river  valley  and  the  seasons  become  more  erratic  as 
the  coast  is  approached. 

In  the  second  zone,  which  includes  the  Cauca  Valley,  all  of  Anti- 
oquia,  etc.,  there  are  two  wet  and  two  dry  seasons,  alternating — 
January,  February,  and  March,  dry;  April,  May,  and  June,  wet;  July, 
August,  and  September,  dry;  and  October,  November,  and  December, 
wet.  The  average  daily  temperature  varies  between  64°  and  84°  F., 
with  an  average  temperature  of  76°  F.     The  most  torrid  part  of  the 


AGRICULTURE.  153 

year  is  during  July,  August,  and  September,  though  the  cHmate  all 
the  year  round  may  be  called  semi  tropical. 

In  the  third  zone  the  climate  and  the  divisions  of  wet  and  dry 
seasons  are  about  the  same,  though  the  precipitation  is  somewhat 
heavier.  From  5,000  to  7,000  feet  the  climate  is  ideal,  not  too  cool 
or  too  hot,  with  little  variation  in  temperature  all  the  year  round,  the 
high  and  low  averages  being  72°  and  58°  F. 

In  the  fourth  zone,  from  6,000  to  9,000  feet  above  sea  level,  there 
are  occasional  frosts  on  the  higher  levels,  the  average  temperatures 
being  about  40°  low  and  64°  F.  high.  The  seasons  are  not  well  de- 
fined, and  rains  are  frequent,  with  little  variation  in  seasons.  The 
best  coffee  comes  from  the  lower  levels  in  this  zone ;  and  on  the  higher 

Elateaus,  such  as  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  such  products  as  wheat, 
arley,  etc.,  do  very  well  despite  the  lack  of  definite  seasons. 

PRODUCTS  OF  VARIOUS  ZONES. 

In  the  fu^t  zone,  the  northern  part  of  the  Pacific  coast  is  suitable 
only  for  tagua  and  rubber,  on  accoimt  of  the  practically  incessant 
rains.  Plantains,  corn,  and  bananas  are  raised,  but  on  a  very  small 
scale.  The  population  (mostly  Negro)  is  small,  and  there  does  not 
seem  to  be  any  immediate  future  of  opportunity  for  this  region, 
which  is  broken  by  the  low  coast  range  lying  along  the  ocean  west  of 
the  Western  Cordillera  of  the  Andes.  South  of  Buenaventura  the 
climate  changes,  with  less  rain  in  the  region  of  Tumaco  and  Barba- 
coas,  and  cattle  are  found  in  the  valley  or  the  Patia  River,  where  the 
land  is  also  suitable  for  cotton,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  rubber,  etc.,  but 
where  the  sparse  population  and  the  climatic  conditions  preclude  any 
immediate  development  of  real  importance.  This  latter  region — 
and,  in  fact,  the  entire  Pacific  coast — produces  considerable  tagua 
(vegetable  ivory)  and  rubber.. 

The  Caribbean  coast  and  the  valleys  of  the  Sinu  and  Magdalena 
Rivers  produce  bananas,  corn,  tobacco,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  tagua, 
and  rubber,  and  it  is  in  this  region  that  cattle  raising  has  become  of 
such  importance.  Bananas  are  exported  in  large  quantities  (from 
Santa  Marta) .  Sugar  and  rice  promise  to  become  important  items  of 
wealth  in  the  near  future.  Tobacco,  in  sufficient  amount  to  permit 
exportation,  is  also  grown. 

The  second  zone,  that  of  the  low  foothills  and  interior  low  valleys, 
is  suitable  for  corn,  cotton,  sugar  cane,  cacao,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  a 
small  variety  of  vegetables  such  as  the  universal  yucca. 

The  third  zone  yields  corn,  coffee,  beans,  and  table  vegetables 
such  as  the  potato. 

The  fourth  zone  produces  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals,  as  well 
as  Temperate  Zone  fruits  and  vegetables,  including  potatoes,  which 
do  better  in  this  colder  climate  than  down  in  the  third  zone. 

There  are  four  products  of  domestic  consumption  that  are  found 
universally  in  Colombia^corn,  sugar  cane,  plantains,  and  yucca; 
all  these  seem  to  be  more  or  less  productive  under  nearly  all  condi- 
tions of  climate  in  Colombia,  and  they  constitute  the  great  food 
staples  of  the  country,  in  addition  to  beef,  which  is  also  much  used 
by  all  classes.  Corn  is  grown  in  small  patches  everywhere  in  the 
country.  Sugar  cane  is  also  found  even  in  the  higher  reaches  of  the 
Cordilleras,  growing  in  tiny  patches  on  the  mountain  sides,  but  it  is 


154'    COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

only  in  Bolivar  (see  p.  218)  and  in  the  Cauca  Valley  (see  p.  275)  that 
sugar  cane  is  produced  in  large  quantities  for  sugar  mills  of  modem 
equipment  where  white  sugar  is  hiade. 

Plantains  form  one  of  the  great  staples  of  the  country,  being  used 
as  are  potatoes  in  the  United  States.  They  are  grown  in  small 
patches  all  over  Colombia,  even  in  the  high  mountains  at  elevations 
exceeding  7,000  feet.  Plantains  and  bananas  form  very  important 
articles  in  local  interchange  of  products  between  difl'erent  localities, 
and  in  the  country  districts  no  house,  ranch,  or  even  hut  of  the  natives 
is  without  its  few  stalks  of  plantains.  The  total  production  of 
plantains  and  bananas,  like  that  of  sugar  cane  and  corn,  must  be 
ver^  great;  but  only  from  Santa  Marta  are  bananas  exported  (by  the 
United  Fruit  Co.),  though  an  attempt  was  made  by  a  German  com- 
pany several  years  ago  to  establish  a  large  banana  plantation  on  the 
Gull  of  Uraba,  without  success.  There  are  lar^e  areas  of  excellent 
banana  lands  left  on  the  Caribbean  coast,  principally  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Bolivar  south  of  Cartagena,  where  there  are  to-day  some 
rather  large  plantations  supplying  the  local  market  and  easilj 
accessible  to  the  port  of  Cartagena.  Moreover,  this  class  of  industry  is 
well  adapted  to  the  native  labor,  but,  unfortunately,  the  banana  in- 
dustry for  export  is  dependent  upon  rapid  ocean  transportation  and 
the  business  can  be  successfully  organized  only  by  very  large  com- 
panies. 

Com  also  has  been  exported.  The  United  States  took  6,420 
Colombian  dollars'  worth  in  1917,  though  in  1916  Colombia's  total 
exports  of  corn  amounted  to  only  37,720  kilos,  valued  at  1,360  dollars, 
gpmg  to  Cuba  in  small  trading  schooners. 

Su^ar  in  the  refined  state  is  now  being  exported  from  Colombia, 
principally  to  the  Canal  Zone  from  Cartagena  and  Buenaventura,  the 
former  exports  coming  from  the  Sincerin  plantation  and  the  latter 
from  "La  Manuelita'  in  the  Cauca  Vtilley  near  Palmira,  30  miles 
east  of  Cali.  Exports  of  refined  sugar  from  the  "La  Manuelita" 
plantation  via  Buenaventura  in  1917  amounted  to  1,774,743  kilos, 
valued  at  161,736  Colombian  dollars,  going  chiefly  to  the  Canal  Zone. 
This  value  was  greatly  increased  during  1918  and  1919,  the  prices 
paid  being  higher.  Sugar  exports  from  Cartagena  in  1915  amounted 
to  134,037  dollars  and  in  1916  to  249,239  dollars—all  to  the  Canal 
Zone  from  the  Sincerin  plantation.  These  amounts  were  increased 
to  a  total  of  2,026,164  pounds,  valued  at  274,341  dollars,  in  1917. 

RfiSUMfi  OF  CONDITIONS. 

Each  of  the  important  crops  of  each  district  have  been  separately 
treated  in  the  regional  discussions  beginning  on  page  185,  in  which 
details  of  production,  methods,  prices,  etc.,  are  given.  Important 
items  of  export  will  be  treated  later.  Reviewing  Colombia  as  a 
whole,  it  can  not  be  said  that  agriculture  is  developed.  This  condi- 
tion is  mainly  due  to  the  universal  lack  of  roads  caused  by  the  broken 
nature  of  the  country  and  the  great  distances  separating  the  centers 
of  population.  For  this  reason,  very  often  imported  foods tufl^s  can 
compete  with  the  domestic  article  despite  the  high  import  duties 
levied  in  protection  of  the  Colombian  products;  as  an  example  of  this 
condition  may  be  cited  the  case  of  wheat,  which  can  be  imported 
from  the  United  States  for  milling  into  flour  on  the  Caribbean  and 


AGRICULTURE.  155 

Pacific  coasts  more  cheaply  than  it  can  be  brought  down  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  from,  the  Bogota  region. 

Great  sections  of  the  Western,  Central,  and  Eastern  Cordilleras 
are  practically  unpopulated,  and  this  is  also  true  of  parts  of  the 
Magdalena  Valley  and  other  regions.  The  centers  of  population 
are  in  Cundinamarca,  Boyaca,  Antioquia,  Caldas,  the  Cauca  Valley, 
parts  of  Santander,  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  parts  of  Narino, 
m  the  south,  around  Pasto.  The  chief  products  of  the  various 
Departments   and  regions   are   as  follows: 

Boyaca. — Wheat,  barley,  potatoes,  beans,  corn,  vegetables,  cattle  and  horses,  a 
few  sheep,  and  a  very  little  sugar  and  coffee. 

Cundinamarca. — Coffee,  wheat,  corn,  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  sugar.  Agriculture 
is  more  advanced  in  Cundinamarca  than  in  any  other  place  in  the  country,  and  the 
labor  is  plentiful,  being  mostly  Indian. 

Antioquia. — Coffee,  a  little  cotton,  sugar  cane  ("panela"),  and  plantains. 

Tolima. — ^Cacao,  sugar,  coffee,  rice,  and  cattle  (the  last  named  not  very  good). 

Atlantic  coast. — Bananas  at  Santa  Marta,  corn,  sugar,  tobacco,  cacao  (not  much), 
cotton  near  Barranquilla,  and  rice  south  of  Cartagena. 

Narino. — Wheat,  aniseed,  potatoes,  vegetables,  and  cattle  (poor).  Population 
nearly  all  Indian. 

Caldas. — Coffee,  corn,  beans,  and  potatoes.     Labor  good,  nearly  all  white. 

Cauca  River  Valley.— -Cattle,  sugar,  rice,  com,  and  beans.     Labor,  mulattoes. 

DepartTnent  of  Caiica.— Coffee,  cattle,  wheat,  and  corn.     Labor,  nearly  all  Indian. 

Santander. — Coffee,  tobacco,  cacao,  corn.     Labor  white,  of  very  fair  quality. 

Pacific  coast. — Practically  all  tropical  forest.  Cattle,  com,  rubber,  and  a  little 
sugar  in  the  Patia  Valley  and  around  Tumaco. 

Sierra  Nevada  region  of  Department  of  Magdalena. — Coffee  is  raised,  but  to  only  a 
small  extent,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  labor.  Indians  also  raise  small  amounts  of 
wheat  and  potatoes. 

OPPORTUNITIES  FOR  DEVELOPMENT— FUTURE  PROSPECTS. 

Two  regions  of  Colombia  attract  attention  for  agricultural  develop- 
ment on  account  of  their  accessibility  and  proximity  ta  the  ocean 
and  foreign  markets — (1)  the  Sinu  River  Valley  and  the  plains  of  Boli- 
var south  and  southwest  of  Cartagena,  and  (2)  the  Cauca  Valley.  The 
former  region  has  been  compared,  in  soil,  climate,  and  general  condi- 
tions, to  the  best  lands  of  Cuba  and  is  undoubtedly  very  suitable 
for  the  development  of  sugar  cane,  rice,  tobacco,  bananas,  and  cattle 
on  a  large  scale.  The  principal  difficulty  is  the  labor  factor.  There 
is  at  the  present  time  a  small  surplus  of  labor  in  this  district,  and 
possibly  3,000  to  4,000  men  (mulattoes  and  Negroes)  could  be  re- 
cruited within  six  months'  time,  but  several  large  plantations  would 
soon  absorb  this  small  surplus  and  the  problem  of  the  importation 
of  labor — always  a  difficult  one — would  be  faced.  Labor  can  not  be 
obtained  from  the  West  Indies  or  Central  America,  as  the  sugar  fields 
of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  have  already  taken  all  the  available  surplus 
from  the  islands  and  labor  is  even  being  recruited  in  Colombia  for 
the  Cuban  fields.  Panama  also  needs  many  thousands  of  men  on 
the  Canal  Zone.  Labor  is  very  plentiful  and  cheap  in  Cundinamarca 
and  Boyaca,  in  the  interior,  but  the  Indians  from  that  section  will 
not  come  down  into  the  hot  lands  of  the  coast,  since  they  can  not  live 
in  the  Tropics,  being  used  to  the  high  and  cool  altitudes  of  the  table- 
lands. 

The  Cauca  Valley  also  possesses  almost  ideal  conditions  for  sugar 
cane — level  lands,  plenty  of  moisture,  etc — though  it  takes  cane 
longer  to  mature  than  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  where  crops  are  taken 
off  the  same  as  in  Cuba  and  the  Antilles — that  is,  from  December 


156     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

until  May,  since,  from  June  on,  the  heavy  rains  prevent  the  work. 
In  the  Cauca  Valley  cane  matures  in  15  to  18  months,  as  there  are 
alternating  dry  ana  wet  periods  of  three  months  each,  but  cane  is 
often  cut  m  12  to  15  months'  time.  Cutting  and  manufacture  can 
go  on  all  the  year  round,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  months 
of  April  and  November,  when  the  heaviest  rains  occur  in  this  region 
and  the  field  work  is  delayed  for  three  or  four  days  at  a  time.  No 
fertilization  is  necessary  in  either  region,  and  there  are  planta- 
tions that  are  known  to  have  produced  cane  continuously  for 
120  years,  the  only  cultivation  being  weed  cleaning  with  shovels. 
However,  the  same  labor  conditions  prevail  in  the  Cauca  Valley  as 
on  the  Atlantic  coast:  the  population  is  small  compared  to  the  areas 
considered,  and  the  men  mucn  prefer,  as  a  rule,  to  put  up  their  own 
tiny  huts  here  and  there  in  groups  of  small  villages,  keep  a  few  head 
of  cattle  or  pigs,  and  plant  small  patches  of  cane  and  plantains — just 
enough  to  support  life  and  enable  the  people  to  lead  a  very  inde- 
pendent existence.  The  Colombian,  even  of  the  lower  class,  does 
not  take  easily  to  organization,  being  too  individualistic  and  excit- 
able in  disposition  and  much  preferring  to  work  for  himself. 

The  lands  of  Bolivar  have  already  attracted  favorable  attention 
from  sugar  planters  of  Cuba  and  f*orto  Rico,  and  the  results  ob- 
tained on  the  lands  of  the  Sincerin  plantation  near  Cartagena  fully 
justify  this  favorable  notice.  Predictions  of  new  developments  in 
this  region  were  fulfilled  early  in  1920  by  the  taking  over  oi  property 
on  the  Atrato  River  near  Uraba  by  sugar  interests  from  Porto  Rico 
and  the  promotion  in  the  United  States  of  another  sugar  plantation 
south  of  Cartagena.  The  demand  for  sugar  and  the  development 
of  all  available  good  lands  in  Cuba  and  the  West  Indies,  combined 
with  the  favorable  conditions  in  this  Colombian  region^  will  certainly 
result  in  its  development,  especially  since  foreign  capital  is  being 
attracted  to  investments  in  packing  nouses,  banking,  etc.,  which  will 
have  the  tendency  to  make  the  region  better  known  and  developed 
in  the  near  future. 

Similar  considerations,  together  with  the  prospective  completion 
of  the  Pacific  Railway  across  the  Central  Andes,  to  connect  with 
Bogota,  and  the  improvement  of  dock  and  harbor  facilities  at  Buena- 
ventura, will  attract  new  capital  to  the  Cauca  \'alley. 

A  very  prosperous  future  in  agriculture  may  be  predicted  for  both 
of  these  favored  regions. 

LAND  TITLES   AND  LAND  LAWS. 

Tracts  of  land  suitable  for  clearing  can  be  obtained  either  from  the 
Government  or  from  private  owners  at  a  reasonable  cost.  Titles  are 
secure  and  generally  date  back  for  a  long  period  of  time,  emanating 
from  old  Spanish  crown  grants  of  colonial  times.  The  chief  difficulty 
encountered  is  in  the  case  of  "  indivisos,"  where  there  are  a  number  of 
owners  in  common;  such  estates  have  been  handed  down  for  genera- 
tions without  any  partition  proceedings.  The  disentanglement  of  an 
"indiviso"  is  a  tedious  and  costly  proceeding,  dragging  on  for  years. 

Another  prolific  source  of  trouole  with  titles  is  that  connected  with 
boundary  aisputes  arising  from  the  vagueness  of  early  grants  in  de- 
fining boundaries.  Lands  were  measured  by  means  of  "a  well- 
twisted  cord"  and  points  were  given  from  one  mountain  or  hilltop 


AGRICULTUBE.  157 

to  another.  The  vast  majority  of  land  titles  in  Colombia  are  good, 
however,  and  the  foreigner  can  purchase  with  safety  when  acting 
under  good  legal  advice.  In  bidding  for  undeveloped  lands  the  for- 
eigner will  often  encounter  an  exaggerated  idea  of  values. 

Following  is  a  translation  of  certain  articles  of  the  text  of  the 
public-land  law  of  Colombia  •} 

The  Minister  of  Public  Works  may  grant  dominion  in  public  lands  and  national  for- 
ests as  follows: 

METHODS    OF    ACQUIRING    LANDS. 

Art.  2.  (1)  By  adjudication  to  agriculturists;  (2)  by  cession  to  promoters  for  enter- 
prises of  an  industrial  character  or  of  public  utility ;  (3 )  for  the  foundation  of  new  cities 
or  to  the  citizens  of  towns  already  established;  (4)  in  exchange  for  territorial  bonds  or 
titles  of  concession;  (5)  with  title  of  sale  for  cash. 

Art.  3.  Proceedings  for  the  transfer  of  dominion  in  public  lands  under  the  first  four 
clauses  will  be  in  conformity  with  the  respective  laws  and  decree  governing  the  matter. 
The  sale  for  cash  will  be  subject  to  the  following  rules:  (1)  The  maximum  amount  of 
land  that  can  be  sold  to  one  person  for  cash  is  5,000  hectares  (hectare=2.471  acres); 
(2)  the  sales  for  cash  will  be  made  by  the  Minister  of  Public  Works  at  public  auction, 
and  must  be  approved  by  him  and  by  the  President  of  the  Republic,  after  hearing  in 
the  Council  of  Ministers. 

PROCEDURE    FOR   PURCHASING    LANDS. 

Art.  4.  Those  desiring  to  acquire  public  lands  for  cash  will  direct  an  application 
to  the  Minister  of  Public  Works,  describing  the  location,  area,  and  boundaries;  also 
the  improvements  of  any  character,  with  an  indication  of  the  owners,  the  intrinsic  con- 
dition, and  the  amount  offered  by  the  would-be  purchaser.  With  this  application 
should  be  presented  proof  that  the  land  is  public  land,  and  in  possession  of  the  nation; 
that  it  does  not  contain  petroleum  wells,  asphalt,  dejxeits  of  salt,  breeding  places  and 
habitat  of  the  heron,  guano  deposits,  or  medicinal  waters.  It  must  also  be 
accompanied  by  a  map  approved  bv  the  official  engineers. 

Art.  5.  The  minister,  if  he  considers  it  advisable,  shall  direct  the*  local  authority 
or  special  commissioners  to  make  an  ocular  inspection  of  the  lands,  at  tlie  expense  of 
the  applicant,  as  to  the  fitness  of  the  land  for  agriculture  or  grazing  or  for  the  estab- 
lishment of  colonies  or  towns. 

Art.  7.  According  to  the  result  of  the  inspection,  and  after  30  days  of  publication 
of  the  notice  referred  to,  the  minister  will  decide  whether  he  will  decree  the  sale  or  not. 

LAND  APPRAISED,    MINIMUM    OFFER,    DEPOSIT,    ETC. 

Art.  8.  When  lands  have  been  surveyed  for  the  Government  and  maps  are  made 
thereof,  the  Government  having  decided  to  offer  them  for  sale,  they  will  be  appraised 
in  lots,  and  this  appraised  value  will  serve  as  a  basis  for  the  offer  for  their  purchase. 
The  intending  purchaser  shall  satisfy  himself  of  the  true  amount  in  the  lot  before  pur- 
chasing, the  Government  not  being  responsible  for  errors  in  measurement.  The  min- 
ister will  provide  for  the  publication  of  the  maps  and  data  respecting  the  geographical 
location  of  the  lands  and  of  their  fitness  for  agriculture,  and  30  days  after  the  publica- 
tion thereof  he  will  fix  the  day  for  the  sale  at  public  auction. 

Art.  9.  In  all  sales  oi  land  for  cash,  preference  shall  be  given  to  those  who  may 
already  have  considerable  improvements  thereon. 

Art.  10.  In  the  sale  of  lands  for  cultivation,  the  lowest  amount  that  may  be 
offered  is  $5  gold  per  hectare,  and  for  lands  suitable  for  grazing,  50  cents  per  hectare. 

Art.  12.  Before  making  an  offer  for  lands  at  public  sale,  the  would-be  purchaser 
must  deposit  10  per  cent  of  the  value  of  the  land,  which  amount  will  be  forfeited  in  case 
of  failure  to  pay  the  remainder  within  24  hours  after  the  adjudication  of  the  sale. 

Art.  14.  If  the  purchaser  at  the  sale  shall  be  other  than  the  applicant  for  the  lands, 
he  shall  pay  in  cash  the  expenses  the  applicant  incurred  before  the  sale. 

Art.  21.  Persons  acquiring  lands  by  purchase  shall  be  required  to  fence  or  other- 
wise mark  the  boundary  lines  within  a  year  from  securing  possession  thereof. 

1  For  some  pertinent  comments  on  public  land  and  immigration  in  Colombia,  the  reader  may  be  referred 
to  "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder,  pp.  156  and  179. 


158    (X)lombia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

NECESSITY  FOR  LARGE  INVESTMENT. 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  means  of  transportation,  the  distance 
from  foreign  markets,  the  ever-present  labor  difficulties,  and  the 
tropical  climate,  the  development  oy  foreigners  of  agricultural  projects 
in  Colombia  should  be  attempted  only  with  large  capital.  A  great 
deal  can  be  acfcomplished  by  the  use  of  modern  agricultural  machinery 
such  as  tractors,  gang  plows,  harvesting  macninos,  grain-cleaning 
machinery,  etc.,  and  organization  is  absolutely;  necessary.  Sanitary 
measures  must  be  carried  out,  medical  service  proviaed,  housing 
facilities  bettered  and  organized,  roads  and  docks  built;  and  all  of 
this  takes  capital.  The  possible  results  can  best  be  judged  by  those 
obtained  by  the  Sincerin  sugar  plantation  near  Cartagena  (see  p. 
218),  which  pays  enormous  annual  dividends  and  is  carrying  out 
extensive  improvements  with  the  object  of  doubling  the  production 
of  sugar  withm  two  years'  time.  This  plantation  is  ownea  and  man- 
aged oy  native  Colombians,  but  there  is  not  sufficient  surplus  domestic 
capital  in  the  country  to  carry  out  other  developments  along  the  same 
lines,  and  foreign  capital  is  needed. 

INCREASE  IN  PRICES  OF  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 

Colombia  has  not  escaped  the  universal  high  cost  of  living  brought 
on  bv  the  war.  Wages  have  had  to  be  increased  throughout  the  coun- 
try (especially  in  the  Caribbean  coast  regions) ,  except  in  the  populous 
and  productive  region  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  from  which 
products  can  not  be  shipped  to  the  coast  to  compete  with  imported 
staples  on  account  of  the  difficulties  of  transportation  and  the  high 
freight  charges. 

In  January,  1920,  the  Colombian  Government  issued  a  temporary 
decree  which  exempted  the  following  foodstuffs  from  import  duty,  in 
an  attempt  to  attract  foreign  products  and  thereby  reduce  the  cost 
of  living  to  the  people,  affecting  principally  the  regions  of  the  Carib- 
bean and  Pacific  coasts:  Unrefined  su^ar,  sweet. potatoes,  and  other 
vegetables,  beans,  peas,  carobs,  lentils,  com,  lard,  eggs,  common 
cereals,  as  well  as  rice,  oats,  barley,  rye,  and  com  flour.  This  exemp- 
tion went  into  effect  on  February  1  and  was  continued  until  July 
20,  1920,  but  was  productive  of  little  or  no  result  on  account  of  the 
universal  shortage  of  food  staples  and  the  large  demand  from  Europe 
at  very  high  prices. 

COLOMBIA'S  EXPORTS  OF  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 

Under  the  group  heading  of  "Vegetable  products,"  which  included 
forest  products — already  treated  in  a  separate  chapter — Colombia 
exported  in  1911  a  total  of  180,789,664  kilos  (kilo  =  2.2046  pounds), 
valued  at  14,375,300  Colombian  dollars,  of  which  37,899,968  kilos,  val- 
ued at  9,500,000  dollars,  was  coffee.  In  1916  the  exports  of  vegetable 
products  amounted  to  170,626,976  kilos,  valued  at  19,460,479  dollars, 
of  which  72,571,610  kilos,  valued  at  15,979,833  dollars,  was  coffee. 
In  1918  the  exports  of  vegetable  products  totaled  204,641,761  kilos, 
valued  at  25,784,369  dollars,  of  which  68,916,745  kilos,  valued  at 
20,675,023  dollars,  was  coffee,  the  price  of  which  had  greatly  increased. 
The  price  of  coffee  still  further  increased — to  more  than  double  any 


AGRICULTURE. 


159 


previous  high  price — during  1919,  the  returns  for  which  are  not 
yet  available.  The  highest  total  in  weight  is  that  of  bananas,  which 
reached  the  high  figure  of  114,781,116  kilos,  valued  at  2,447,628 
dollars,  in  1918,  a  war  year  when  the  export  of  fruit  was  cut  in  half 
by  the  lack  of  the  necessary  tonnage. 

These  figures  do  not  include  the  exports  of  sugar,  which  in  1916 
amounted  to  2,270,228  kilos,  valued  at  211,587  Colombian  dollars, 
and  in  1918  to  1,601,910  kilos,  valued  at  182,079  dollars.  The 
exports  of  sugar  in  1918  were  curtailed  by  the  lack  of  means  of 
ocean  transportation  during  the  war  and  the  constantly  increasing 
domestic  consumption.  Sugar  was  shipped  from  the  Cauca  Valley 
over  the  Central  Andes  (by  pack  mule  most  of  the  way),  to  Bc^ota, 
and  at  Sincerin  orders  were  refused  for  su^ar  wanted  for  the  Canal 
Zone,  on  account  of  the  demand  on  the  Caribbean  coast  of  Colombia. 
However,  during  1919,  an  increased  amount  of  refined  su^jar  was  ex- 
ported, principally  to  Panama  by  reason  of  the  high  prices  offered 
there. 

To  give  a  good  idea  of  Colombia's  exports  of  vegetable  products, 
the  following  table  is  presented,  taken  from  the  Colombian  Govern- 
ment export  returns  for  the  year  1918: 

[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Kinds. 


Achi 

Alligator  pears 

Indigo 

Peas 

Rice 

Bananas 

Cacao 

CofTee  (1,102,607  sacks  of 
62J  Idlos  each) 

Oats 

Henequen  fiber 

Other  fibers 

Beans 

"  Garbanzos  "  (chick- 
peas)   


Kilos. 

Value.'       1 

1 

Colombian 

dollars.       i 

3,571 

451    ! 

5,797 

296 

650 

1,600   1 

20,649 

2,370   ! 

20,818 

2,873   1 

14,781,116 

2,447,629 

19,899 

8,540 

68,916,745 

20,675,024    1 

24, 558 

993 

33, 174 

6,165 

1,560 

260 

292, 214 

38,034 

4,577 

863 

Kinds. 


LentUs 

Corn 

Oranges 

"Name"  (yams) 

Potatoes 

Cotton  seed 

Pasture-grass  seed 

Castor  beans 

Castor  beans  ("resino") 

Sisal  fiber 

Leaf  tobacco 

Yucca  ("casaba") 


Kilos. 


10,237 

1,034,321 

10,909 

237,511 

166,917 

616, 910 

17,234 

21, 181 

59, 776 

5,280 

4,207,636 

4,698 


Value.' 


Colombian 

dollars. 

1,714 

51,292 

388 

6,131 

6,890 

10,945 

1,808 

2,728 

5,215 

2,533 

1,004,693 

640 


'  These  values  are  arbitrary,  the  value  used  in  the  calculations  for  any  given  month  being  computed 
from  the  average  prices  obtained  for  the  article  under  consideration  during  the  preceding  three-month 
period. 

Under  ''Manufactured  products"  the  following  exports  of  agri- 
cultural products  are  shown  for  1918  (only  the  principal  ones  being 
given) : 


Kinds. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Kinds. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Coconut  oil 

16,546 

36,200 

1,695 

54,767 

I  fini  Qin 

Colombian 

dollars. 

2,320 

10,503 

1,780 

6, 168 

182,080 

422 

"Wheat  flour 

840,117 
746 

683,025 
80,324 
48,004 

Colombian 
dollars. 
287,342 

Corozo-nut  oil 

Banana  flour 

191 

Castor  oil . .        

"Panela"  (unrefined  su- 
gar)  

SLsal-fiber  sacks 

Starch 

Sugar,  refined       

47,977 
33,827 

Chocolate.... '      'so9 

Barley 

2,570 

^ 

160     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Rice  is  not  only  exported  but  also  imported,  and  is  a  staple  in  the 
country.  In  1916  Colombia  imported  a  total  of  8,558,177  kilos  of 
rice,  valued  at  725,376  Colombian  dollars.  The  quantity  of  rice 
exported  in  1916  was  only  1,400  kilos,  valued  at  292  dollars. 

Of  the  total  export  of  com  in  1918,  the  United  vStatcs  received  a 
total  of  23,426  bushels,  valued  at  $27,303  (United  States  currency); 
the  remainder  went  to  Cuba,  the  Dutch  West  Indies,  and,  in  small 
amounts,  to  Panama. 

During  the  war  the  high  prices  oflFered  for  castor-oil  beans,  or  the 
oil,  brought  attention  to  bear  on  this  field  crop  in  the  Barranquilla 
district,  where  a  few  attempts  were  made  to  grow  the  castor-bean 
plant  on  a  fairly  large  scale.  There  seemed  to  be  every  prospect 
of  success,  since  the  plant  grows  wild  everjrwhere  in  the  country  and 
is  well  known  to  the  natives — this  crop  having  the  added  advantage 
of  not  being  subject  to  any  insect  pests  (which  destroy  other  crops 
in  this  region)  and  also  that  of  being  able  to  resist  long  periods  of 
drought,  etc.  However,  the  efforts  failed  on  account  of  the  inade- 
quate labor  supply  in  the  district  and  the  lack  of  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  the  planters,  who  made  no  really  well-organized  attempt  to 
grow  the  plant  on  a  large  scale. 

Starch  is  made  in  Colombia  from  the  yucca  plant.  This  industry 
is  capable  of  considerable  development,  and  already  the  domestic 
product  has  about  taken  the  place  of  the  imported  article. 

After  coffee,  the  most  important  of  American  imports  of  Colombian 
agricultural  products  haS  been  sugar,  which  outranks  cacao.  The 
following  table  shows  certain  imports  from  Colombia  to  the  United 
States  during  four  recent  years  (according  to  official  American 
statistics) : 


Articles. 

Fiscal  year  1916. 

Fiscal  year  1917. 

Calendar  year 
1918. 

Calendar  year 
1919. 

Quan- 
tity. 

Value. 

Quanr 
tity. 

Value. 

Quan- 
tity. 

Value. 

Quan- 
tity. 

Value. 

Refined  sugar  (cane).pounds. . 
Tobacco,  leaf: 

Suitable  for  cigar  wrap- 
pers  pounds. . 

Other do.... 

Beans  and  lentils. .  .bushels. . 

Cacao pounds. . 

Cotton: 

Raw do.  .. 

3,370,700 

1,478 

391,300 

980 

293,931 

38,537 
9,708 

$136,133 

1,013 
34,312 

2,4»>6 
41,784 

7,374 
441 

7,605,556 

46,809 

1,038,399 

42 

422,777 

700 
42,757 

$370, 141 

5,094 

108,872 

500 

50,563 

115 
2,109 

844,802 

$40,453 

74,411 

$4,486 

1,212,807 

2,462 

157,605 

53,000 

154,671 
13,221 
20,019 

13,218 

865,273 

230 

478,910 

120,124 

1,415 

1(M,006 

Com bushels. . 

3,119 
4,628,504 

4,688 

2,323,562 

734 

2,082 

Fruits: 

Bananas bunches. . 

Other 

2,710,047 

1,264,992 
4,122 
7,602 

3,578,500 

1,789,713 

5,496 

24,861 

4,094,940 

2,030,193 
2,997 

Plants,  shrubs,  etc 

8,534 

CACAO. 


Cacao  is  little  cultivated  in  the  country.  The  Colombians  do  not 
care  much  for  this  crop,  because  of  the  fact  that  it  does  not  begin  to 
produce  until  the  sixth  or  eighth  year  from  the  time  of  setting  out  the 
trees  and  the  plant  requires  from  10  to  12  years  to  reach  full-bearing 
maturity.  The  cacao  is  rather  delicate  and  requires  more  care  and 
attention  than  the  average  native  is  willing  to  bestow  upon  it. 


AGRICULTUBE.  161 

The  cacao  plant  flourishes  in  the  second  agricultural  zone  of 
Colombia — that  is,  in  the  low  hills  and  interior  valleys  at  elevations 
of  2,000  to  5,000  feet  above  sea  level.  In  general,  it  is  grown  in 
nearly  every  region  of  the  country,  but  in  comparison  with  coffee 
or  sugar  cane,  tne  industry  is  little  developed.  More  attention  has 
been  paid  to  cacao  in  the  region  around  Ocana  than  elsewhere,  with 
the  exception  of  the  Cauca  Valley,  but  in  the  Ocana  region  planters 
have  suffered  in  the  past  from  depredations  of  the  Motillones  Indians 
and  banditti  from  the  Venezuelan  border,  and  the  outlying  planta- 
tions have  been  practically  abandoned.  The  industry  is  also  heavily 
handicapped  by  the  lack  of  roads  and  easy  means  of  transportation 
to  the  Magdalena  River  for  exporting. 

There  is  an  increasing  demand  for  chocolate  in  Colombia,  and  the 
domestic  supply  of  the  cocoa  bean  is  not  adequate  to  supply  the  de- 
mand in  many  places — ^Medellin  and  Bogota,  for  example.  Small 
amounts  of  cacao  are  exported  simply  because,  in  certain  places, 
it  is  easier  to  export  via  Buenaventura  or  Barranquilla  than  it  is  to 
ship  to  Bogota  or  Medellin  over  the  mountains  with  a  high  pack-mule 
freight  rate,  or  up  the  river,  as  the  case  may  be.  There  are  choco- 
late factories  in  almost  every  town  of  any  size  in  Colombia,  and  the 
manufacture  of  chocolate  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  domestic 
industries. 

The  production  of  cacao  is  much  better  developed  in  Ecuador, 
whence  several  cargoes  were  shipped  to  Colombia  via  the  Panama 
Canal  in  1919,  this  movement  being  caused  bv  the  excessive  accumu- 
lation of  cacao  in  Ecuador  during  the  war  andf  the  high  prices  offering 
in  Colombia  at  the  time. 

Next  to  the  Ocana  region  the  Magdalena  Valley  and  the  Cauca 
Valley  produce  the  most  cacao. 

Trees  are  planted  about  270  to  the  acre,  and  12  cents  net  profit 
per  tree  per  year  may  be  reckoned  on  if  the  trees  are  well  looked 
after,  year  in  and  year  out.  There  is  little  work  in  harvesting;  not 
much  labor  is  required,  and  no  machinery  of  any  kind  is  needed  for 
cleaning,  etc.  When  land  intended  for  cacao  is  cleared,  the  larger 
trees  of  the  jungle  are  left,  particularly  that  one  known  in  the  country 
as  ''  madre  de  cacao,"  whicn  forms  a  shade  for  the  delicate  and  much 
smaller  cacao  trees. 

Chocolate-making  machinery  is  now  being  manufactured  in 
Medellin  and  is  much  in  demand  in  the  country. 

The  Chiriguana  cacao  district  lies  to  the  east  of  the  Magdalena 
River,  toward  Ocana;  it  was,  at  one  time,  a  large  producer  of  cacao, 
but  is  now  more  used  for  cattle  raising,  on  account  of  the  damage 
inflicted  by  the  cacao  beetle.  Products  are  exported  via  the  Cesar 
River  and  Chiriguana  swamps  to  the  Magdalena.  In  1919  cacao 
plantations  suffered  from  the  protracted  dry  season;  production  was 
considerably  reduced  and  the  business  rendered  speculative  in  the 
extreme.  Experts  who  have  visited  this  region  are  of  the  opinion 
that  irrigation  should  be  resorted  to,  but  tms  is  too  costly  for  the 
limited  capital  available,  and  it  is  easier  to  set  out  plantations  in 
more  favored  regions. 

The  Carare  River  region  in  Santander  produces  the  best  cacao  of 
the  country,  and,  notwithstanding  the  small  amount  of  attention 
paid  to  the  plantations,  the  crop  presents  a  fine  appearance  and  the 

37558°— 21 11 


162      COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

beetle  gives  the  planters  little  trouble.  It  is  said  that  the  industry 
has  a  promising  future  in  this  region,  only  limited  by  the  lack  of 
sufficient  labor  and  capital. 

There  are  no  data  available  that  would  show  the  extent  of  planta- 
tions or  production  in  Colombia,  but  it  is  estimated  roughly  tliat  the 
entire  crop  is  worth  between  $2,000,000  and  $3,000,000  annually, 
the  bulk  of  the  consumption  being  domestic.  Exports  in  19  io 
totaled  99,669  kilos,  valued  at  37,778  Colombian  dollars,  according 
to  the  Colombian  Government  export  returns  for  that  year.  For 
cacao  from  Colombia  received  by  the  United  States,  see  table  on 
page  160. 

The  chief  reason  for  the  backwardness  of  the  industry  in  Colombia 
is  the  general  lack  of  capital  and  labor  and  the  lon^  time  necessary 
before  returns  are  secured — returns  from  other  industries,  such  as 
cattle  raising,  being  more  rapid  and  profitable  at  the  present  time. 
In  colonial  times  the  Spaniards  had  larger  plantations  in  Colombia 
than  now  exist,  and  cacao  was  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the 
country  for  export  to  Europe.  Prior  to  1914  shipments  of  cacao 
were  made  regularly  to  Germany  and  France,  but  this  trade  has 
been  interrupted  bv  the  war,  and  the  small  production,  combined 
with  the  domestic  demand,  has  further  curtailed  exports  to  Europe, 
New  York  offering  a  better  market  for  available  shipments. 

RICE. 

Rice  is  one  of  the  necessary  food  staples  of  the  people  of  Colombia 
of  all  classes  and  has  been  imported  year  by  year  in  increasing 
amounts.  However,  during  the  past  few  years,  especially  when 
supplies  could  not  be  obtained  during  the  war,  attention  has  been 
given  to  the  local  production  of  rice,  and  a  rice  mill  is  being  completed 
at  Cartagena  to  take  care  of  the  increasing  production  in  that  region. 

Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  are  said  to  be  ideal  in  the  region 
south  and  southwest  of  Cartagena,  near  Monteria,  on  the  Sinu  River, 
and  there  are  many  other  areas  of  natural  overflow  lands  suitable 
for  rice  planting  in  the  Cartagena  district.  Capitalists  of  Cartagena 
have  been  attracted  by  the  high  local  prices,  rice  of  inferior  grade 
bringing  from  $12.50  to  as  high  as  $14  per  100  pounds.  In  1918  the 
owners  of  the  flour  mill  "LaHeroica  began  the  construction  of  a 
four-story,  reinforced-concrete,  rice-cleaning  mill  on  the  Bay  of 
Cartagena,  near  the  port,  where  wharves  will  also  be  constructed  to 
facilitate  handling  of  the  product.  The  building  was  completed 
early  in  1919  at  a  cost  of  $70,000,  and  macliinery  to  the  value  of 
$50,000  or  $60,000  was  delayed  on  account  of  the  inability  to  secure 
its  delivery  at  that  time.  The  decorticating  capacity  of  this  mUl 
will  be  2,000  barrels  of  cleaned  rice,  of  160  pounds  each,  per  day  of 
24  hours.  (One-half  of  the  gross  product  is  chaff.)  Lands  near 
Monteria,  about  54  miles  from  Cartagena,  had  been  secured,  and 
2,000  hectares  (4,942  acres)  were  being  cleared  and  prepared  for  rice 
cultivation  in  1919;  this  area  was  to  be  gradually  increased  to  8,000 
hectares  (19,768  acres).  Some  rice  has  already  been  planted  in  this 
region  by  the  natives,  but  only  in  small  patches  of  insufficient 
production  to  supply  even  the  local  demand. 

The  first  attempt  to  grow  rice  in  this  district  on  a  large  scale, 
using  modem  machinery,  was  in  the  season  1918-19  on  the  ranch 


AGRICULTURE.  163 

known  as  "Honduras,"  located  about  30  miles  south  of  Cartagena, 
southwest  of  the  Sincerin  sugar  plantation,  and  owned  by  Sr.  A.Meluk 
and  Gen.  Francisco  Escobar  in  partnership.  This  large  property 
contains  6,000  or  7,000  hectares  of  cattle  pasture  (hectare  =  2.471 
acres)  in  Para  grass,  the  principal  object  being  cattle  raising.  In 
1918  a  steam  tractor  of  25  horsepower,  with  an  equipment  of  gang 
(disk)  plows,  reaping  and  thrashing  machinery,  etc.,  was  imported, 
and  600  hectares  (1,482  acres)  was  planted  in  rice  ^vithout  irrigation 
provisions  of  any  kind.  Despite  the  fact  that  the  expected  spring 
rains  (counted  on  to  mature  the  crop)  failed  completely  in  1919  and 
the  rice  received  no  moisture  other  than  that  of  the  soil  during  a 
period  of  five  months— less  than  one-fifth  of  the  expected  normal 
crop  beint;  harvested — the  returns  paid  for  the  cost  of  the  equipment 
purchased  and  left  a  small  profit  besides,  all  the  rice  harvested  being 
cleaned  on  the  property  and  sold  in  small  lots  in  the  open  market 
in  Cartagena  at  prices  ranging  from  $12.50  to  as  high  as  $14  per 
100  pounds. 

A  little  rice  is  also  grown  in  the  Magdalena  Valley  above  Calamar, 
but  only  in  very  small  patches  for  local  consumption.  The  next- 
largest  rice-producing  region  is  that  lying  between  the  towns  of  Buga 
and  Palmira  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  where,  in  one  small  district,  rice 
planting  has  become  of  some  local  importance,  though  not  enough 
is  produced  to  supply  the  Cauca  Valley  demand  and  there  are  no 
figures  showing  the  extent  of  the  fields  or  the  annual  production. 
Modern  aOTicultural  machinery  is  not  used  for  rice  cultivation  in  the 
Cauca  Valley. 

With  the  exception  of  the  600  hectares  noted  near  Cartagena  where 
modern  machinery  and  equipment  are  used,  and  that  of  the  lands 
now  being  prepared  for  rice  near  Monteria  where  modern  equipment 
will  also  oe  used,  methods  of  rice  cultivation  in  both  the  Sinu  River 
and  the  Cauca  Valley  regions  are  very  primitive.  The  land  is  not 
even  plowed;  it  is  merely  surface-sowed  after  the  water  has  drained 
oft",  and  the  seed  is  worked  in  by  means  of  brush  ''drags."  When 
harvested,  the  rice  stalks  are  "topped"  by  hand,  a  stalK  at  a  time 
(a  very  slow  and  laborious  process) ,  and  the  grain  is  pounded  out  in 
wooden  mortars,  a  little  at  a  time,  to  supply  a  few  days'  needs,  this 
work  being  done  by  the  negro  women. 

Plows  and  modern  agricultural  machinery  and  implements  have 
never  been  used  anywhere  in  Colombia  to  any  extent,  except  on  the 
wheat  farms  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  and  the  people  of  the  rural 
districts  on  the  coasts  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  interior  have  no  idea 
of  their  management,  care,  application,  or  value  in  relation  to  results 
obtained.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  it  is  the  general  belief  that  plows  and 
the  like  are  not  needed  in  the  tropical  part  of  the  country  because  the 
soil  is  so  fertile  and  vegetation  so  prolific  that  no  help  or  stimulation 
is  necessary — only  the  work  with  the  machete  to  keep  down  the  weeds 
until  the  crop  can  top  them  and  take  care  of  itself. 

There  ought  to  be  a  small  market  at  Cartagena  and  Call  for  small 
rice-cleaning  plants,  including  roasters,  polishers,  etc.;  but  the  first 
plants  installed  would  require  painstaking  supervision  on  the  part  of 
the  manufacturers  or  sales  agents  on  the  ground.  This  latter  pro- 
vision would  also  apply  to  all  agricultural  equipment,  such  as  nar- 
vesters,  tractors,  and  the  like,  until  their  use  becomes  better  known. 


164     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Imports  of  rice  into  Colombia  during  1916  amounted  to  8,558  metric 
tons,  valued  at  725,376  Colombian  dollura.  In  1916  only  1,400  kilos 
of  rice  were  exported,  valued  at  292  dollars,  while  in  1918  Colombia's 
exports  of  this  cereal  amounted  to  nearly  21  metric  tons,  valued  at 
2,873  dollars. 

Exports  of  rice  from  the  United  States  to  Colombia  during  four 
recent  years  have  been  as  follows :  Fiscal  year  1916,  8,934,829  pounds, 
valued'at  $343,105;  fiscal  year  1917,  3,383,644  pounds,  valued  at 
$142,775;  calendar  year  1918,  7,104  pounds,  valued  at  $444;  calendar 
year  1919,  1,598,200  pounds,  valued  at  $118,525. 

Takinw  the  high  year  of  1916,  it  is  seen  that  the  United  States 
furnished  about  one-half  of  the  rice  shipped  into  Colombia.  The 
falling  off  of  rice  imports  during  the  later  war  years  was  caused  by 
the  trade  restrictions  on  foodstuffs  imposed  by  the  Allies  and  the  lack  of 
ocean  tonnage  for  cargoes,  and  also  by  the  increasing  domestic  pro- 
duction, makmg  heavy  foreign  purchases  of  rice  no  longer  so  necessary. 
However,  as  has  been  pointed  out,  the  Colombian  production  is,  as  yet, 
far  from  the  point  of  satisfying  the  domestic  demand,  and  in  the  early 
part  of  1919,  as  soon  as  trade  restrictions  were  beginning  to  be  re- 
moved, merchants  of  Cartagena,  Barranquilla,  Medellin,  and  Bogota 
were  endeavoring  to  place  heavy  orders  for  rice  shipments  from  the 
United  States  at  high  prices.  Before  the  war  about  one-half  of 
Colombia's  rice  came  thi'ough  British  channels. 

It  is  thought  that,  with  the  inauguration  of  a  direct  steamship 
service  between  New  Orleans  and  Colombian  Caribbean  ports  (see 
p.  375),  any  surplus  of  rice  production  in  Louisiana  and  Texas  will  find 
a  ready  and  favorable  market  for  several  years  to  come  by  this  route 
and  that,  also,  shipments  could  be  made  to  advantage  from  San  Fran- 
cisco to  Buenaventura,  intended  for  the  interior  of  Colombia,  after 
the  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway  over  the  Central  Andes. 

TOBACCO. 

One  of  the  most  important  items  of  export  from  Colombia  is  tobacco, 
which  promises  to  be  of  increasing  importance,  not  only  as  an  export 
but  also  as  a  domestic  industry,  smce  cigar  and  cigarette  makin^  has 
reached  large  proportions  in  Colombia  during  recent  years.  Ship- 
ments of  leaf  tobacco  have  been  made  for  many  years  to  France  for 
the  account  of  the  French  Government,  constituting  the  principal 
item  of  export  from  Colombia  to  France.     Since  the  war  and  the 

general  disarrangement  of  normal  shipping,  the  surplus  crop  of 
olombia  has  gone  to  the  United  States,  as  a  rule — shipments  to  this 
country  in  1918  amounting  to  1,212,807  pounds,  valued  at  154,671 
Colomoian  dollars. 

There  arc  three  principal  regions  of  the  country  where  tobacco  is 
produced  in  sufficient  quantities  to  allow  a  surplus  for  export — 
namely,  the  Department  of  Bolivar,  near  the  town  of  El  Carmen,  south- 
west of  Cartagena;  the  Department  of  Santander,  around  Bucara- 
manga,  in  various  small  valleys;  and  the  Department  of  Tolima,  near 
Ambalema,  on  the  Upper  magdalena  River.  Some  tobacco  is  also 
produced  in  Antioquia,  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  in  the  entire  Magdalena 
Valley,  and  in  many  other  places,  but  only  in  small  patches  and  in  a 
very  desultory  manner,  the  industry  being  important  only  in  the 
regions  named  above. 


AGRICULTURE. 


165 


In  1918  Santander  exported  1,634  bales  of  leaf  tobacco,  weigliing 
101,308  kilos,  the  total  production  of  leaf  and  of  manufactured  cigars 
and  cigarettes  amounting  to  1,082,857  kilos,  valued  at  $688,346  (all 
manufactured  tobaccos  oeing  for  domestic  consumption,  however). 
Leaf  tobacco  to  the  value  of  about  So0,000  is  exported  annually  from 
the  Ambalema  region  of  Tolima,  going  principally  to  England  in 
normal  times.  Exports  of  tobacco,  both  wrapper  and  filler,  amounted 
in  1916  to  923,698  pounds,  valued  at  $101,549,  and  in  1917  to  131,139 
pounds,  valued  at  $13,292 — all  to  the  United  States.  Most  of  this 
production  went  to  Germany  before  the  war,  $149,371  worth  being 
shipped  to  Germany  in  1914,  with  only  $3,051  to  the  United  States, 
$378  to  France,  and  $25,976  to  all  other  countries. 

The  total  exports  of  tobacco  from  Colombia  since  1906  have  been 
as  follows : 

[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar=S0.9733.] 


Years. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Years. 

KUos. 

Value. 

1906 

3,756,523 
7,466,747 
3,815,357 
5,049,205 
4,479,604 
3,911,012 
3,262,343 
6,282,107 

Colombian 
dollars. 
665,918 
518,939 
355,230 
428,199 
376,903 
332,935 
442,461 
830,  (m 

1914 

2,639,476 
2,036,692 
2,075,378 
2,878,552 

4,207,636 
18,921 

Colombian 
dollars. 
392,095 

1907 

1915 

334,641 

190*< .       . 

1916 

373, 525 

1909 

1917 

611, 277 

1910 

1918: 

Tobacco 

Cigars  and  cigarettes. . 

1911 

1,004,692 

1912 

16,096 

1913 ... 

Next  to  the  cotton  mills,  cigarette  factories  constitute  the  largest 
domestic  industry  in  Colombia.  This  is  the  principal  manufacturing 
industry  of  the  Departments  of  Tolima  and  Santander,  and  both 
Barranquilla  and  Cartagena  have  large  tobacco  factories  which  ship 
their  product  all  over  tne  country.  The  total  annual  consumption 
of  tobacco  in  the  country  is  enormous. 

The  cultivation  of  tobacco  in  Colombia  is  carried  on  with  more  care 
and  attention  than  is  given  to  any  other  agricultural  product.  Hoes 
are  used  and  the  soil  is  cultivated  to  a  certain  extent  in  small  patches. 
There  has  been,  however,  no  large  undertaking  in  tobacco,  and  there 
is  vast  room  for  improvement  in  the  matter  of  seed  selection,  care 
of  the  plants,  drying,  and  curing.  Experts  who  have  visited  the 
country  from  the  V^e  Nacional  m  Mexico  and  from  Sumatra  have 
declared  that  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are  ideal  for  the  very  finest 
long-leaf  wrapper  quality  and  that  scientific  methods  would  produce 
as  fine  a  tobacco  in  flavor  and  aroma  as  any  in  the  world.  There 
exists  an  excellent  opportunity  for  tobacco  planting  on  a  large  scale 
in  the  accessible  Cartagena  region,  between  Sincerin  and  Monteria, 
and,  like  sugar,  tobacco  could  be  made  one  of  the  country's  leading 
items  of  export,  established  on  a  firm  basis  of  quality,  regular  demand, 
and  high  prices  (like  that  of  Cuba)  and  not,  as  now,  subject  to  all 
market  fluctuations  and  more  or  less  speculative,  as  is  the  case  with 
the  poorer  qualities  of  the  leaf. 

Exports  of  tobacco  from  Colombia  are  handled  by  the  merchants 
of  the  coast  cities  such  as  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  and  it  is 
customary  to  send  agents  into  the  tobacco-producing  sections  to 
buy  up  the  crops  in  season,  most  of  the  growers  disposing  of  their 


166     COLOMBIA:   A   (;OMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

crop,  baled  on  the  ground,  for  cash.  Long-leaf  tobacco  for  cigar 
making  is  packed  for  export  in  rawhide-covered  square  bales,  each 
weighing  62.5  i<ilos  (1.37.5  pounds)  net. 

A  considerable  contraband  trade  is  also  carried  on  along  the 
Caribbean  coast  in  leaf  tobacco,  which  is  picked  up  bv  small  100-ton 
trading  schooners  plying  out  of  Curasao,  whence  the  tobacco  has 
ordinarily  found  its  way  to  the  Netherlands  and  from  there  to  Ger- 
many. This  trade  from  the  El  Carmen  district  alone  has  been  esti- 
mated to  run  as  high  as  12,000  pounds  per  annum. 

The  best  quality  of  long-leaf  tobacco  comes  from  the  Ambalema 
district  in  Tolima,  where  the  English  owner  of  a  lar«fe  cigar  factory 
has  done  much  in  the  way  of  introducing  better  methods  of  cultiva- 
tion and  care  of  the  leaf. 

The  invoiced  value  of  export  qualities  prior  to  1915  averaged  8 
cents  per  pound  but  dropped  to  as  low  as  0  cents  as  the  result  of  the 
curtailment  of  shipments  during  the  war.  Prices  obtained  in  1919 
averaged  much  higher,  12  and  14  cents  being  paid  in  many  cases. 

COFFEE. 

As  has  been  pointed  out  in  preceding  paragraphs,  coffee  is  the 
principal  export  of  Colombia,  lar  outranking  all  other  articles  of 
export  and  furnishing  the  necessary  basis  of  exchange  and  the 
balance  of  trade  through  which  the  country  supplies  itself  with  a 
great  assortment  of  foreign-made  goods  as  well  as  raw  materials  for 
domestic  manufacture.  If  its  exports  of  coffee  were  taken  away 
the  country  would  lose  more  than  50  per  cent  of  its  foreign  buying 
power  and  imports  would  fall  off  in  direct  relation  to  that  decrease. 
Around  the  coffee  crop  and  coffee  prices  revolves  the  economic  condi- 
tion of  the  entire  country,  directly  affecting  even  such  regions  as 
produce  no  coffee,  because,  when  coffee-producing  sections  have  sold 
a  large  crop  at  high  prices,  the  resulting  proceeds  flow  into  the  other 
nonproducing  sections  in  trading  for  other  products  such  as  corn, 
tobacco,  gold,  platinum,  rubber,  chicle,  cattle,  mules,  horses,  sheep 
and  goats,  hides  and  skins,  cotton,  salt,  etc.,  and  the  result  is  general 
prosperity.  Such  a  condition  developed  during  the  latter  half  of 
1919,  as  a  direct  result  of  the  large  coffee  crops  of  December,  1918, 
and  April-May,  1919,  when  the  country  harvested  the  largest  crop 
in  its  nistory  and  marketed  it  at  prices  that  were  more  than  double 
the  previous  high  averages  in  New  York.  Just  as  cotton  in  the  south 
of  tne  United  States  affects  all  commercial  activity  in  that  part  of 
the  country,  so  does  coffee  affect  Colombia — or  even  more  so,  on 
account  of  the  more  pronounced  lack  of  other  important  products  to 
take  its  place. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  COFFEE  SITUATION  AS  na)ICATING  SALES  POSSIBILITIES. 

An  exporter  in  the  United  States  or  Europe,  if  possessed  of  an  ac- 
curate estimate  of  the  coffee  crop  of  Colombia  and  the  foreign-market 
price  tendencies  based  on  the  probable  supply  and  demand,  can  very 
closely  estimate  the  year's  import  of  the  country  and  know  whether 
the  time  is  advantageous  for  the  introduction  of  new  lines  of  goods, 
whether  advertising  will  bring  results,  and  what  percentao;e  of  staple, 
necessary  lines  will  be  purchased  and  what  percentage  will  be  classed 


AGRICULTURE.  167 

as  medium  and  high  priced  luxuries.  Houses  interested  in  machinery 
and  engineering  equipment  and  supplies,  if  possessed  of  a  knowledge 
of  the  coffee  situation  in  Colombia  and  foreign  markets,  can  also 
gauge  the  ensuing  demand  for  new  lighting  mants,  railway  exten- 
sions, and  public  improvements  of  all  kinds.  For  a  good  coffee  crop 
sold  at  high  prices  means  larger  investment  in  real  property  and  in- 
creased building  activity;  it  affects  municipalities  whose  tax  returns 
are  augmented,  and  increased  expenditures  in  improvements  result 
immediately.  It  also  means  brisk  buying  in  foreign  markets  of  all 
sorts  of  merchandise,  from  the  importation  of.  which  the  Government 
receives  its  greatest  portion  of  revenue,  in  the  form  of  import  duties; 
it  therefore  directly  affects  the  financial  condition  of  the  National 
Government,  which  is  reflected  in  that  of  the  various  Departments. 
It  also  means  an  influx  of  capital,  which  is  invested  in  new  industrial 
plants  (such  as  extensions  of  old  and  erection  of  new  cotton  mills), 
in  cattle  raising,  and  in  the  production  of  more  coffee,  cotton,  sugar, 
etc. 

After  nearly  five  years  of  partial  stagnation  of  trade  and  financial 
difficulties  resulting  from  the  war  conditions,  it  was  the  coffee  crop  of 
1919  that  pulled  the  entire  country  out  of  the  slough  of  industrial  and 
commercial  despondency  and  started  it  on  the  most  prosperous  era 
in  its  entire  history.*  As  an  example  of  just  what  this  means,  one 
may  cite  the  case  of  one  small  native  bank.  This  bank,  located  in 
Manizales,  the  headquarters  for  a  large  coffee-producing  section  of  the 
country,  transacted  in  the  single  month  of  June,  1919  (the  end  of  the 
coffee  season),  a  total  gross  business  of  over  1,000,000  Colombian  dol- 
lars more  than  the  total  for  the  entire  year  1918. 

EFFECT  ON  TRADE  CONDITIONS. 

When  a  condition  such  as  that  outlined  above  is  brought  about  by 
the  coffee  crop  in  Colombia,  the  time  is  very  opportune  for  manu- 
facturers and  exporters  interested  in  developing  new  foreign  markets 
to  send  good  salesmen  to  the  country  to  cover  it  thoroughly,  intro- 
ducing their  new  lines  and  cementing  trade  relations  for  the  future. 
Advantage  should  be  taken  of  such  a  condition,  even  if  the  lines 
handled  are  enjoying  an  excellent  domestic  demand  at  high  prices. 
New  articles  should  be  carefully  introduced  in  the  most  promising 
centers  of  trade  in  the  country  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  good  agents 
or  distributers,  with  the  idea  of  selling  at  least  a  sufficient  quantity 
to  gain  the  attention  of  the  market  and  hold  it  for  future  reduction 
in  home  demand.  Large  manufacturers  in  the  United  States  are 
pursuing  such  a  policy  all  over  the  world  to-day,  preparing  for  the 
time  of  overproduction  and  the  decrease  in  exports  to  Europe. 

In  connection  with  the  above  remarks  concerning  the  opportunity 
for  introduction  of  new  lines  in  Colombia  in  relation  to  the  coffee  crop 
and  market,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  best  sources  of  information 
in  the  United  States  are  the  various  large  export  commission  houses. 
Many  of  these  are  composed  of  Colombians  who  know  the  coffee  in- 
dustry very  well  from  first-hand  knowledge  and  maintain  branch 
houses  and  agencies  throughout  the  country  in  all  important  com- 

>  Editor's  Note. — A  marked  change  in  the  general  business  situation  in  Colombia— a  depression  follow- 
ing the  i^eriod  of  prosperity  mentionotf  by  Trade  Commissioner  Bell — took  place  after  Mr.  Boll  had  prepared 
the  material  included  in  this  handbook.  Mr.  Bell's  data  and  observations  are  based  mainly  on  conditions 
obtaining  during  1919  and  at  the  beginning  of  1920. 


168      COLOMBIA:    A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK, 

morcial  centers.  Through  these  establishments  they  keep  themselves 
well  informed  and  watch  the  coflee  situation  keenly,  as  they  are  the 
heaviest  buyers  of  cofTec,  which  they  export  for  their  own  account  in 
hir«;e  f|uantities  to  the  United  iStates.  These  export  commission 
houses  are  also  interested  in  new  lines  of  fjjoods  and  articles  of  manu- 
facture for  introduction  in  Colombia  and  welcome  cooperation  in 
those  lines. 

Another  important  source  of  information  is  that  of  the  American 
branch  banks  now  established  in  the  country,  one  of  which  has  11 
subbranches  coverinf]^  all  important  commercial  centers  in  Colombia. 

The  study  of  production  and  import  statistics  is  a  great  help  in 
obtaining  a  general  knowledge  of  the  coffee  situation. 


EXPORT  STATISTICS. 


The  production  of  coffee  in  Colombia  has  doubled  since  1906,  ex- 
ports having  been  as  follows : 


[1  sack~62i  kilos  (138  pounds)  net  weight: 


Years. 

Sacks. 

Years. 

Sacks. 

Years. 

Sacks. 

1906 

605,705 
541,300 
577,900 
673,350 
543,000 

1911 

601,600 

88«,800 

972, 000 

9.S3,000 

1,074,600 

1916.  . 

1,153,000 
1,093,000 
1,102,667 

1907 

1912 

1917  (estimated) 

1918 

190S 

1913 

1909 

1914 

1910     .. 

1915 

Note.— The  coffee  exported  diiring  1919  was  estimated  to  be  at  least  1,300,000  sacks.  The  crop  was 
reported  to  be  at  least  25  per  cent  heavier  than  that  of  any  previous  year,  and  new  plantations  set  out  in 
1914  and  1915  came  into  full  bearing  in  the  1919  season. 

QUAUTY  OF  COLOMBIAN  COFFEE. 

Colombian  coffee  is  characterized  by  its  heavy  body  and  delicious 
aroma  and  flavor.  On  account  of  the  heavy  body  it  is  usually 
blended  with  other  lighter  grt^des  from  either  Venezuela  or  Central 
America.  It  is  also  much  used  as  a  blend  for  the  still  heavier  Bra- 
zilian grades,  and  this  fact  is  well  known  to  coffee  buyers  and  specu- 
lators, who  take  advantage  of  its  better  quality. 

A  movement  has  been  initiated  among  the  larger  of  the  Colombian 
coffee  exporters,  who  are  acquainted  with  the  New  York  market,  to 
put  Colombian  coffee  on  the  market  in  the  United  States  as  a  dis- 
tinctive brand,  the  idea  being  to  create  a  demand  and  thereby  better 
the  wholesale  prices  of  the  Colombian  product. 

The  Hispano-Pan  American  Association  investigated  coffee  mar- 
keting conditions  in  the  United  States  in  1918,  with  the  result  that  a 
scheme  was  presented  to  establish  cooperative  warehouses  for  Colom- 
bian coffee  in  the  United  States,  where  roasters  would  be  provided 
and  brovision  made  for  advertising  in  an  endeavor  to  educate  the 
people  to  a  preference  for  Colombian  coffee. 

Among  tne  Latin  American  nations  Colombia  occupies  second 
place — after  Brazil — as  a  coffee-producing  country. 

REGIONS  OF  PRODUCTION— GRADES.  PRICES.  SHIPMENTS.  ETC. 

Prior  to  the  European  war  about  70  per  cent  of  Colombia's  caifee 
exports  came  to  the  United  States,  while  during  the  war  and  in  1919 
more  than  90  per  cent  came  to  this  country.     Roughly,  the  value  of 


AGRICULTURE.  169 

the  coffee  exported  in  1913  was  18,300,000  Colombian  dollars  and  in 
1914  16,098,000  dollars.  New  York  alone  received  in  1914  as  many 
as  700,000  sacks  of  Colombian  coffee,  not  counting  ''Cucutas"  pro- 
duced in  the  region  of  Cucuta  in  Norte  de  Santander  and  exported  via 
Lake  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela. 

To  show  the  principal  regions  of  coffee  production  and  their  relative 
standing,  the  following  is  given : 

Production,  seaaon  rf  1913-14.  Sacks  of 

Departments :  138  pounds. 

Antioquia 185,  000 

Cundinamarca 200,  000 

Caldas 199,000 

Norte  de  Santander  ' 200,  000 

Santander  (Sur) : 105,  000 

Cauca 30,  000 

ElValle 50,000 

Tolima 60,  000 

Magdalena 40,  000 

Total 1,  069,  OCO 

vShipments  of  coffee  from  the  various  regions  of  the  coffee-producing 
D^artments  are  routed  approximately  as  follows: 

From  the  sections  of  Antioquia  south  and  southwest  of  Medellin, 
coffee  is  routed  via  the  railway  to  Puerto  Berrio  and  thence  by  the 
Magdalena  River  to  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena  for  export.  Some  of 
the  coffee  grown  in  the  extreme  southern  part  of  Antioquia  finds  its 
way  out  to  seaboard  via  Manizales  and  the  cableway  down  to  Mari- 

?[uita  on  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway.  Also,  coffee  produced 
arther  to  the  west  in  this  extreme  southern  region  moves  by  pack 
train  down  to  the  Cauca  River  at  Cartago,  thence  by  steamer  up  the 
Cauca  River  to  Call,  and  is  thence  exported  via  the  railway  to  Buena- 
ventura. 

All  coffee  produced  in  Cundinamarca,  on  the  slopes  of  the  table- 
land toward  the  Magdalena  River,  moves  down  to  the  river  at 
Girardot  for  export  via  the  Magdalena  River  route.  Upon  the  com- 
pletion of  the  Pacific  Railway  across  the  Quindio  Pass  via  Ibague, 
Armenia,  and  the  Cauca  Valley  to  Palmira,  this  coffee,  and  other 
export  products  of  this  entire  region,  will  move  out  through  Buena- 
ventura. These  statements  apply  also  to  the  production  of  the 
Department  of  Tolima. 

Caldas  exports  principally  over  the  range  by  pack  animal  to  the 
present  end  of  the  cableway  (see  p.  263),  thence  down  to  the  Dorada 
Extension  Railway  at  Manquita,and  thence  down  the  Lower  Mag- 
dalena for  export  through  either  Barranquilla  or  Cartagena.  Coffee 
produced  on  the  western  side  of  the  range  of  the  Central  Andes  has 
two  trading  centers  in  Caldas,  one  being  Manizales  for  the  most 
northern  section  of  the  Department  and  the  other  Armenia  in  the 
southern  section;  the  latter  is  the  center  of  greatest  production  in 
this  Department  and  is  situated  in  the  heart  of  the  famous  Quindio 
coffee  district.  Of  late  an  increasing  amount  of  this  coffee  is  being 
diverted  from  the  old  route  over  the  range  (to  the  river  at  Girardot) 
to  the  easier  and  shorter  Pacific  route  via  Cali  and  Buenaventura, 

1  Exported  chiefly  through  Lake  Maracaibo  in  Venezuela  and  graded  as  "  Cucutas." 


170    roT.OMBiA :  a  commehctat.  and  tnditstrtai.  handbook. 

pack  trains  comincr  down  off  the  ranpje  at  or  near  Zarzal  on  iho. 
Caiica  River  and  even  moving  in  as  far  as  Palmira  overland. 

Santander  ships  its  coffee  out  via  the  Lebrija  River  to  the  Ma<j;da- 
lena  and  thence  to  Barranquilla  or  Cartagena  for  export. 

Cauca,  of  which  Cali  is  tne  traxiing  center,  and  also  El  Valle  ship 
via  Buenaventura. 

Magdalena  exports  via  the  seaport  of  Santa  Marta,  this  coffee  being 
grown  on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  where  production 
IS  only  restricted  by  the  lack  of  sufficient  labor  supply. 

The  table  of  production  by  Departments  given  on  page  169  is  for 
the  season  1913-14  and  will  serve  as  an  aid  in  forming  some  idea  of 
the  proportion  from  each  district.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
the  crop  of  1918-19  was  increased  by  25  per  cent  and  that  Antioquia 
and  Oaldas  (especially  the  latter)  led  in  this  increase,  though  more 
attention  has  been  given  to  proper  care  and  cultivation  in  Cundina- 
marca  than  anywhere  else  in  the  country. 

The  grades  are  named  according  to  the  regions  of  production. 
"Medellin"  is  the  Antioquia  grade,  this  designation  also  coverinn;  a 
great  deal  of  the  Caldas  coffee.  "Quindio"  takes  in  El  Valle, 
Tolima,  and  the  southern  part  of  Caldas,  while  the  brand  'Cundina- 
marca"  covers  the  production  from  the  Department  of  tliat  name. 
"Medellin"  ordinarily  commands  the  highest  prices  and  is  generally 
regarded  as  of  slightly  superior  grade,  but  this  is  rather  the  result  of 
the  better  business  methods  of  the  Antioquians  in  pushing  their 
products  than  of  any  exceptional  excellence  of  ciuality.  Three  con- 
ditions are  necessary  for  good  coffee — first,  elevation,  the  plant 
being  at  its  best  at  about  6,500  feet  above  sea  level;  second,  moisture; 
and  third,  a  certain  amount  of  volcanic-ash  impregnation  in  the  soil. 
A  great  deal  of  the  ''Quindio"  coffee  is  bought  up  by  exporters  of 
Medellin  and  shipped  under  the  ''Medellin  brand.  Also,  many 
Colombian  firms  with  offices  in  New  York  buy  up  large  amounts  of 
the  crops  and  market  them  under  their  own  brands,  the  total  repre- 
senting a  collection  from  several  main  districts  but  about  the  same 
in  quality  and  grade. 

Prior  to  the  war,  prices  in  New  York  for  Colombian  coffee  lluctuated 
between  12  and  14  cents  per  pound,  with  the  latter  price  as  a  high 
average,  although  as  high  as  16  cents  had  been  paid  and  was  con- 
sidered a  very  high  price.  Immediately  followmg  the  signing  of 
the  armistice  m  November,  1918,  and  in  view  of  the  expectation  of 
immediate  renewal  of  ocean  freight  service  to  Em'ope,  the  coffee 
market  reacted  in  New  York  and  became  extremely  speculative  in 
character,  most  of  the  buying  being  for  reexport  to  Europe,  where 
there  was  known  to  be  a  great  shortage  of  coffee  and  a  strong  demand 
at  very  favorable  prices.  Advances  of  as  much  as  4  cents  per  pound 
were  registered  in  one  single  day,  and,  from  then  on  until  the  close 
of  the  1919  season  in  August,  coffee  prices  steadily  advanced  to  the 
extraordinarily  high  level  of  3H  cents  in  New  York  for  the  Colombian 
grades  ''Medellin  '  and  "Quindio,"  with  28^  cents  for  ''Cundina- 
marca"  and  "Santander."  As  the  harvest  was  late,  because  of  the 
shortage  of  labor  for  picking  in  most  districts  (especially  Caldas  and 
the  Quindio),  and  the  bad  condition  of  the  river  for  export  cargoes, 
Colombia  reaped  almost  full  benefit  from  the  liigh  prices  being  paid 
in  New  York,  and  disposed  of  its  crop  at  an  average  of  about  26  cents 
per  pound,  considering  both  early  and  late  consignments.     If  one 


AGKICULTURE.  171 

takes  the  estimated  yield  of  1,300,000  sacks  (which  is  probably 
a  little  low,  if  anything)  at  the  average  estimated  price  in  New  York 
of  26  cents  per  pound,  the  total  value  of  the  1919  crop  may  be  esti- 
mated at  about  $45,630,000,  whereas  the  previous  high  figure,  that 
of  1913,  was  approximately  $18,300,000.  Deducting  freight  charges, 
insurance,  commissions,  etc.,  it  is  estimated  that  the  1919  coffee 
crop  produced  a  gross  valuation  for  Colombia  of  at  least  $40,000,000, 
and  it  was  precisely  this  influx  of  new  wealth  that  caused  the  com- 
mercial reaction  of  the  entire  country  in  May,  June,  July,  and  August, 
1919,  and  sent  the  importers  (who  had  been  patiently  waiting  for 
lower  prices  after  the  war)  hurrying  to  the  United  States  to  purchase 
badly  needed  stocks  of  goods.  Price  was  no  longer  an  object,  and 
the  interior  demanded  merchandise  at  any  prices. 

This  same  condition  also  resulted  in  the  importation  of  more  than 
$9,000,000  of  American  gold  coin  into  Colombia,  to  be  minted  into 
Colombian  coin  or,  subsequently,  to  circulate  freely  in  the  country 
as  legal  tender. 

The  general  condition  of  prosperity  brought  about  such  heavy 
and  active  buying  of  goods  in  the  United  States  that  New  York 
exchange — which  was  as  low  as  .83  in  January,  February,  and  March 
of  1919 — instead  of  being  still  further  discounted  on  account  qf  the 
large  balance  of  the  coffee  shipments,  reacted  and  went  up  almost  to 
par,  or  .98^,  .98f ,  and  even  .99^  This  plainly  indicated  that  the  heavy 
buying  of  American  products  had  wiped  out  the  trade  balance  of 
$13,000,000  piled  up  by  Colombia  against  the  United  States  during 
the  war  and  had  further  taken  care  of  the  heavy  increase  in  this 
balance  that  the  coffee  situation  would  have  involved  if  it  had  not 
been  equalized  by  purchases  of  return  merchandise  in  the  United 
States.  It  had  been  feared  at  one  time  that  this  coffee  situation 
would  mean  a  trade  balance  of  some  $50,000,000,  bringing  iVmerican 
dollar  exchange  to  .50  in  Colombia,  but  arguments  in  this  connection 
did  not  foresee  (1)  the  stimulation  of  bujnng  in  the  United  vStates 
brought  about  by  the  very  prosperity  of  the  country  resulting  from 
the  coffee  prices  and  heavy  crop ;  (2)  the  fact  that  Europe,  in  general, 
was  not  yet  in  a  position  to  renew  exporting  on  a,  large  scale ;  and  (3) 
the  fact  that  prices  in  the  United  States  for  export  goods  were  as 
high  as,  or  even  higher  than,  they  were  during  the  war.  These  con- 
ditions went  a  long  way  toward  taking  care  of  the  large  balance  in 
favor  of  Colombia. 

Another  factor  making  for  hi»h  prices  for  coffee  in  1919  was  the 
fact  that,  while  during  the  war  the  United  States,  the  largest  coffee- 
consuming  country  of  the  world,  held  large  surplus  stocks  of  coffee, 
these  were  immediately  drawn  upon  for  reexport  after  the  armistice 
and  the  country  was  left  with  about  one-half  of  its  normal  stock  of 
coffee  of  all  grades.  In  June,  1919,  there  were  estimated  to  be  only 
1,172,000  sacks  of  Brazilian  coffee  in  the  United  States  and  only 
385,000  sacks  of  Colombian  and  other  "soft"  (mild)  grades,  as 
compared  with  2,437,000  sacks  of  Brazil  and  780,000  of  "milds"  at 
the  same  time  the  preceding  year — or  less  than  half  the  normal 
stocks  and  a  very  small  quantity  in  relation  to  the  consumption 
demands  of  the  United  States  alone. 


172      COLOMBIA!    A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
INCREASED  BENEFIT  TO  SMALL  PRODUCERS. 

Before  the  war  the  coffee  trade  was  in  the  hands  of  the  hirjjjer  ex- 
porters of  the  country,  who  were  also  the  hirger  importin<^  merchants. 
They  made  loans  to  their  clients  on  the  s(»curity  of  tiiture  crops. 
Such  loans  were  usually  represented  by  small  stocks  of  merclumdise 
and  supplies,  together  with  some  cash.  These  accounts  were  taken 
up  at  the  end  of  the  picking  season  with  coffee  delivered  to  the 
merchant,  who  had  the  beans  cleaned  in  the  local  coffee-cleaning 
plants,  sacked,  and  shipped  for  export  for  his  own  account,  the  small 
planter  really  receiving  a  small  margin  of  the  profit.  During  the 
speculative  period  in  1919,  which  was  induced  by  the  high  prices  in 
New  York  for  Colombian  coffee,  there  was  very  active  competition 
in  coffee  buying,  intensified  by  the  activity  of  a  large  American 
export  and  import  concern,  with  the  result  that  the  producer  re- 
ceived a  much  larger  margin  of  profit  for  his  coffee,  and  more  actual 
cash  than  ever  before. 

As  an  example,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  on  July  1,  1918,  "per- 
gamino"  coffee  ("pergamino"  is  the  bean  with  the  inner  shell  or 
parchment-like  skin  still  remaining)  was  quoted  in  Girardot  at  17 
Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  currency)  per 
"carga"  of  125  kilos,  or  275.6  pounds,  while  the  "cleaned"  (that  is, 
the  slielled  bean  ready  for  export)  was  quoted  at  22.50  dollars  per 
carga.  In  July,  1919,  "pergamino"  was  quoted  in  Girardot,  deliv- 
ered at  cleaning  plant,  at  50  dollars  per  carga  and  shelled  coffee  at 
62  dollars  per  carga,  with  still  higher  prices  offering  in  Medellin  on 
account  of  the  better  grading  and  lower  freight  charges  down  the 
river  to  port  of  export. 

This  situation  has  meant  a  revolution  in  the  coffee  trade  and 
industry  of  Colombia.  Instead  of  coming  into  "town"  (the  nearest 
large  commercial  center)  about  twice  a  year — namely,  at  the  end  of 
the  November-December  picking  season  and  of  the  April-May-June 
picking  season — to  solicit  goods  and  a  small  loan  from  his  dealer,  the 
small  producer  has  been  sought  out  for  his  product  with  cash  offers. 
He  has  escaped  from  the  prevailing  hiojh  interest  rates  charjjjed  him 
and  has  been  able  to  buy  where  and  how  it  has  best  suited  his  inter- 
ests. He  is  no  longer  controlled  by  the  local  merchants  and  has 
money  in  hand  with  which  to  enlarge  his  plantations,  purchase  better 
equipment,  and  improve  his  living  conditions.  To  understand  fully 
the  lar-reaching  enect  of  this  situation,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that,  with  the  exception  of  the  plantations  of  Cundinamarca,  nearly 
all  the  coffee  in  the  country  is  produced  on  small  plantations  owned 
and  worked  by  individual  planters  of  the  poorer  class  of  the  people. 

Importing  merchants  of  the  coast  cities  of  Barranquilla  and  Car- 
tagena are  Targe  buyers  of  coffee  in  the  interior,  which  they  export 
for  their  own  account,  investing  their  surplus  every  year  m  coffee 
and  hides  for  export,  though  the  Syrians  seem  to  prefer  the  business 
of  precious  metals  (such  as  gold  and  platinum)  to  coffee  or  other 
lower-priced  products. 

AMERICAN  PURCHASES  OF  COLOMBIAN  COFFEE. 

Imports  of  Colombian  coffee  into  the  United  States  have  been  as 
follows  during  four  recent  years,  according  to  official  American 
figures : 


AGRICULTURE. 


173 


Years. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Years. 

Pounds. 

Value. 

Fiscal  year  1916 

Fiscal  year  1917 

109,363,456 
150,591,659 

$13,519,5i5 
17,971,874 

Calendar  year  1918 

Calendar  year  1919 

118,909,462       »14,767,367 
150,4&3,853         30,425,162 

By  a  comparison  of  the  above  table  with  the  total  exports  of 
Colombian  coffee,  shown  on  page  168,  one  may  easily  estimate  the 
proportion  taken  by  the  United  States.  Prior  to  the  war  the  United 
btates  took  about  70  per  cent  of  Colombia's  coffee  crop,  the  remain- 
der being  about  equally  divided  between  England,  France,  and 
Germany. 

CONDITIONS  DETERMINING  PROSPERITY  OF  INDUSTRY. 

For  detailed  descriptions  of  the  coffee-planting  industry  of  Colom- 
bia the  reader  is  referred  to  the  sections  on  "Coffee"  in  tne  accounts 
of  the  Medellin,  Manizales,  Bogota,  and  Cali  districts  (see  p.  i  85).  In 
these  sections  there  are  discussions  of  the  relative  importance  of 
coffee  in  each  district,  methods  of  plantmg,  life  of  the  trees,  produc- 
tion, labor  conditions,  methods  of  trade  in  coffee,  future  possibilities, 
etc. 

The  coffee  production  of  Colombia  has  doubled  since  1906,  even 
under  generally  adverse  conditions  of  the  markets  and  lack  of  trans- 
portation facilities  in  the  interior  of  the  country.  The  great  stimulus 
given  the  industry  during  1919  has  had  the  effect  of  increasing 
coffee-tree  planting  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  it  may  be  predicted 
that,  given  fairly  good  market  conditions  for  the  next  three  or  four 
years  to  sustain  the  existing  attitude  of  optimism,  Colombia's  coffee 
production  will  be  increased  by  at  least  50  per  cent  by  the  end  of 
the  next  five  years,  when  the  new  plantings  begin  to  bear  in  full  crop. 
This  increased  production  will  be  greatly  assisted  by  the  completion 
of  the  A^arious  transportation  lines  now  under  construction,  such  as 
the  cableway  into  Manizales  from  the  Magdalena  Valley,  the  Tolima 
Railway  to  Ibague,  the  connecting  line  between  Beltran  and  Ibague 
to  avoid  the  Upper  River,  and,  last  but  not  least,  the  completion  of 
the  Pacific  Railway  over  the  Central  Range  on  the  Quindio  Pass, 
where  it  will  pass  through  the  largest  and  best  coffee-producing 
section  of  the  entire  country.  Two  other  railways  are  also  of  im- 
portance to  the  coffee  industry — the  Caldas  Railway  from  Puerto 
Caldas  (on  the  Cauca  River,  just  above  Cartago)  to  Manizales,  and 
the  southern  branch  of  the  Pacific  Railway  from  Cali  to  Popayan. 
The  tendency  is  for  coffee  to  move  out  by  the  shorter  and  cheaper 
Pacific  route  when  these  new  lines  are  completed,  and  Buenaventura 
will  then  become  the  principal  coffee-shipping  point  of  Colombia 
instead  of  the  Atlantic  seaports. 

The  routings  of  coffee  shipments  from  the  various  producing  sec- 
tions of  the  country  have  been  indicated  on  page  169.  In  1917  the 
seaport  of  Santa  Marta  exported  526,799  kilos  (kilo  =-2.2046  pounds), 
valued  at  139,050  Colombian  dollars.  In  1916  Barranquilla  exported 
12,558,884  dollars'  worth,  and  in  1917  the  value  was  8,828,867  dollars. 
In  1916  Cartagena  shipped  23,140,792  pounds,  valued  at  2,479,890 
dollars,  while  m  1917  the  amount  was  27,680,369  pounds  and  the 
value  3,418,398  dollars.  Buenaventura  in  1917  exported  11,087,606 
kilos,  valued  at  2,634,274  dollars.  Tumaco  shipped  a  much  smaller 
amount 


174      COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDMOOK. 

Prior  to  the  war  Great  Britain  took  about  one-fourth  of  the  coffee 
exported  through  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  Germany  receiving  a 
much  smaUer  quantity. 

The  coffee  industry  needs  httle  labor  (except  unskilled,  in  picking 
time)  and  small  capital,  since  coffee  grows  on  the  mountain  slopes 
that  are  fit  for  notliing  else.  It  requires  little  care  or  cultivation 
other  than  the  chopping  out  of  the  larger  weeds  and  the  provision  of 
shade  tress.  The  larger  trees  of  natural  growth  are  left  for  this 
latter  purpose,  and  some  of  the  coffee  shrubs  are  shaded  with  plan- 
tains while  they  are  young.  The  greatest  difliculty  encountered  is 
that  of  the  lack  of  good  means  of  cheap  and  rapid  transportation  to 
market  -that  is,  to  the  seaports  for  export.  It  is  true  that  the 
Magdaleua  River  steamer  companies  make  every  possible  provision 
for  taking  care  of  the  coffee  harvest  and  allow  the  lowest  possible 
rates  to  the  large  shippers  (because  coffee  forms  their  largest  tonnage 
and  priiTcipal  source  of  freight  revenue)  and  that  the  Colombian 
Railway  &  Navigation  Co.  gives  the  same  down-river  export  rate  on 
coffee  from  up-river  points  to  either  Puerto  Colombia  or  Cartagena, 
notwithstandmg  the  longer  ami  more  costly  rail  haul  from  Calamar 
to  Cartagena.  But  the  condition  of  the  river  precludes  any  improve- 
ment, the  stream  being  at  its  chiest  stage  just  as  the  coffee  harvest 
starts  to  move  down  to  the  river  for  exportation  through  the  Atlantic 
ports.  The  Lower  River  is  bad  from  December  until  April  and  not 
really  good  for  lar^e  boats  until  late  in  June,  as  a  general  rule.  Dur- 
ing the  unfavorable  periods  much  valuable  import  freight  has  col- 
lected at  ports  of  importation  and  is  carried  up  the  river  as  soon  as 
conditions  permit.  In  the  meantime,  coffee  is  collecting  all  along 
the  river  at  points  of  river  shipment,  where  there  are  not  enougli 
storehouses  and  no  other  protection,  the  coffee  very  often  receiving 
weather  damage  as  a  result  of  being  left  out  in  the  open.  The  result 
is  a  general  condition  of  confusion  at  all  river  ports.  The  large 
shippers  have  the  best  of  it  because  they  have  preierential  contracts 
on  a  tonnage  basis  for  their  exports  of  coffee,  and  very  often  the  smaller 
shippers  are  left  behind  in  the  race  to  markets  and  the  higher  prices. 
In  1919  some  coffee  had  been  on  the  river,  or  on  its  way  down  the 
river,  or  at  port  of  export,  for  six  months,  and  the  advantage  of 
the  high  prices  obtaining  during  the  season  was  partly  lost  to  the 
owners. 

To  prevent  these  losses  and  this  congestion  at  river  points,  seversil 
of  the  largest  coffee  buyers  in  Colombia  (Pedro  A.  Lopez  y  Cia.  and 
Alejandro  Angel  y  Cia.)  have  purchased  their  own  steamers  with 
which  to  handle  their  own  exports  of  coffee  to  better  advantage. 
The  ])est  solution  so  far  has  been  the  idea  of  the  extension  of  the 
Dorada  Railway  from  Beltran  to  Girardot  (Ibague).  By  this  plan 
the  Upper  River  will  be  avoided,  shipments  can  continue  all  the 
year  round,  and  a  much  larger  tonnage  can  be  carried  in  a  given 
length  of  time  than  by  the  Upper  River  steamers.  This  lino  is  now 
(1920)  under  contract  with  Pedro  A.  Lopez  y  Cia.  and  is  to  be  com- 
pleted within  four  years'  time.  The  completion  of  the  Pacific  Rail- 
way over  the  Quindio  Pass  will  do  more  than  anything  else  to  relieve 
the  situation. 


AGRICULTURE.  175 

MARKET  FOR  AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MACHINERY. 

GENERAL  METHODS  OF  CONDUCTING  AGRICULTURAL  OPERATIONS. 

With  the  exception  of  the  wheat  lands  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota, 
the  two  large  sugar  estates  mentioned,  and  a  few  individual  efforts 
in  modern  agriculture,  there  is,  in  general,  little  cultivation  of  the 
soil  in  Colombia.  The  only  lands  on  which  work  is  done  to  any 
extent  by  hand  (other  than  the  universal  process  of  chopping  out 
the  larger  weeds  with  the  machete)  are  those  of  the  small  sugar-cane 
patches  and  the  tobacco  patches.  In  these  a  large  square  hoe  is 
used  for  weeding  and  cultivation,  but  even  this  work  is  generally 
performed  in  a  very  lax  manner,  and  Colombian  farms  do  not  pre- 
sent the  orderly,  clean-cut  appearance  seen  in  parts  of  Europe  and 
in  the  United  States.  In  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  throughout 
the  small  valleys  of  the  interior  along  the  river  bottoms,  are  many 
small  cane  patches  which  are  well  cared  for  and  cultivated  with  the 
hoe,  but  these  cane  patches  have  been  worked  for  many  years. 

Throughout  the  coast  regions  and  in  the  Magdalena  Valley  and 
other  valleys  of  the  interior,  there  is  little  attempt  at  cultivation 
or  the  use  of  modern  agricultural  implements  or  machinery.  The 
principal  field  crops  of  corn  and  cotton  are  handled  in  the  following 
manner:  The  land,  if  new,  is  first  cleared  of  the  underbrush  with 
the  machete  and  then  the  larger  trees  are  cut  down  at  waist  height 
with  the  ax.  This  work  is  done  during  the  dry  season,  and  the  dry 
brush  and  other  growths  are  burned  ofl  just  before  the  rains  begin — 
leaving  the  land  encumbered  with  an  assortment  of  stumps,  partly 
charred  trunks  of  hardwood  trees,  etc.,  and  incapable  of  being  plowed 
in  any  case.  The  burning  over  kills  the  seeds  of  all  weeds,  as  a 
general  thing,  and  the  corn  or  cotton  seed  is  planted  in  holes  dug 
with  a  sharp  stick  or  iron  bar  at  the  beginning  of  the  rains.  During 
the  growth  of  the  plants  nothing  further  is  done,  with  the  exception 
of  periodically  chopping  out  the  larger  weeds  with  the  machete. 
Corn  is  harvested  in  the  ear,  with  the  husk  usually  left  on  as  a  pro- 
tection against  the  weevil,  and  in  this  form  is  transported  to  market 
in  canoes  or  on  burros  or  mules.  On  account  of  the  weevil,  corn, 
which  is  an  important  staple  of  the  people,  can  not  be  stored  in 
bins  and  there  are  no  elevators  equipped  with  modern  chemical 
apparatus  in  which  the  insects  could  be  destroyed  and  the  grain  held 
in  quantity.  This  statement  also  applies  to  the  other  staple,  beans. 
Throughout  the  high  and  cold  table-land  of  Bogota,  and  also  that 
of  Pasto,  there  are  few  insect  pests  and  grain  can  be  stored  as  is 
usual  in  similar  climates. 

The  destruction  caused  by  the  black  weevil  throughout  the  hot 
country  retards  more  than  anything  else  the  development  of  agri- 
culture on  a  larger  scale,  nearly  all  planting  now  being  done  by 
small  individual  nolders,  who  in  many  cases  manage  to  eke  out  a 
bare  existence.  On  the  west  coast  of  Mexico  the  problem  has  been 
solved  by  the  use  of  small  "elevators"  or  cheaply  constructed  grain 
bins,  built  as  air-tight  as  possible  and  equipped  with  a  Kipp's  gener- 
ator making  carbon  bisulphide  gas,  with  which  the  shelled  grain  is 
periodically  treated  to  destroy  the  weevil.  An  equipment  of  this 
kind,  if  not  too  expensive,  would  meet  with  a  rather  large  demand 
throughout  the  hot  country  of  Colombia,  if  properly  introduced, 
and  would  serve  a  very  good  purpose  in  that  region. 


176     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK, 

Lands  thus  cleared  are  planted  for  three  or  four  consecutive 
seasons,  then  allowed  to  lie  tallow  and  j^row  up  in  weeds  and  undcir- 

frowth  again  for  a  few  years,  and  then  a^jain  cleared  for  planting, 
ertilization  and  irrigation  are  generally  unknown,  though  plans  are 
being  made  to  introduce  fertilization  into  the  older  su^ar  fields  of 
Bolivar  and  the  wheat  lands  of  Bogota.  The  difficulty  in  the  latter 
region  would  be  the  high  cost  of  transporting  fertilizers  from  th(^  port 
of  entry  to  the  interior. 

TOOLS  AND  IMPLEMENTS  EMPLOYED. 

The  universal  tool  hi  Colombia  is  the  machete,  which  is  always 
carried  by  the  people  of  the  country  districts.  With  the  machete 
they  clear  their  land,  build  their  huts,  and  cultivate  their  crops. 
In  many  parts  of  the  tropical  and  semitropical  regions  of  the  country 
it  is  impossible  to  travel  the  forest  trails  without  the  machete  for 
clearing  away  the  brush,  vines,  etc.,  which,  in  a  few  days,  again 
partly  obstruct  these  paths. 

The  machete  is  used  in  two  forms.  The  larger,  heavy,  round- 
pointed  blade  with  a  horn  or  bone  handle,  and  with  the  greatest 
width  of  blade  at  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  from  the  liandle, 
is  the  one  used  for  brush  work,  etc.  Then  there  is  the  smaller 
machete  of  the  same  general  shape  but  of  one-half  (or  less)  the  size 
of  the  former,  which  is  used  for  lighter  work  and  is  calh^l  a  "banana 
knife"  on  account  of  its  universal  use  in  the  banana  plantations  for 
cutting  bananas.  One  well-known  ^\ineri(;an  brand  is  the  best 
known  and  liked  throughout  Colombia,  though  there  were  formerly 
several  popular  German  makes  on  the  market.  The  machete  out- 
ranks all  other  agricultural  implements  in  volume  of  sales.  In 
Antioquia  no  man  of  the  middle  or  lower  classes  is  without  his 
"peinilla"  (in  its  leather  sheath),  as  the  "banana  knife"  is  called 
there. 

Brush-hooks  are  also  coming  into  general  use  for  heavy  brush 
work.  These  are  not  wanted  with  the  imported  wooden  handles, 
as  the  Colombians  make  their  ovtm  out  of  native  hardwoods  in  the 
field. 

The  axes  used  and  best  liked  are  those  of  the  lon^-bladed,  wide- 
eved  variety,  with  heavy  beveled  edge  suitable  for  hardwoods; 
these  also  take  a  straight  wood  handle  made  by  the  user  in  the 
field.  The  natives  do  not  know  the  use  of  the  slender  curved  ax 
handles  and  manage  to  break  them  as  fast  as  they  can  be  put  in. 
Workmen  engaged  in  clearing  are  given  the  ax  head  and  are  expected 
to  make  their  handles  to  their  own  liking.  The  ordinary  fine- 
bladed,  light  ax  used  in  northern  countries  for  pine,  fir,  etc.,  is 
useless  for  hardwoods  and  soon  breaks  up. 

For  tobacco  and  sugar-cane  work  there  is  used  a  heavy,  broad, 
and  square-bladed  hoe  taking  a  straight  hardwood  handle,  also 
made  by  the  natives. 

There  are  very  few  grindstones  in  the  country  outside  of  the  few 
blacksmith  shops.  Machetes  are  sharpened  by  rubbing  on  a  stone 
selected  from  the  country  rock  for  the  purpose. 

Articles  mu(;h  in  demand  are  small,  narrow  strips  of  fine  steel 
used  for  shoeing  axes,  hoes,  etc.,  and  these  are  earned  in  stock  by 
all  hardware  dealers.     These  dealers  are  also  the  importers  of  nearly 


AGRICULTURE.  177 

all  agricultural  implements  used  in  the  country,  thougli  it  is  true 
that  most  of  the  large  importers  of  general  merchandise  purchase 
large  stocks  of  machetes  for  wholesaling  in  the  interior  to  their 
clientele,  as  a  standard  article  of  commerce.  These  general  im- 
porters carry  barbed  wire,  staples,  and  machetes,  for  all  of  which 
there  is  a  large  and  increasing  demand — especially  for  barbed  wire 
for  fencing. 

The  average  yearly  imports  of  machinery  of  all  kinds  into  Colombia 
total  about  $2,000,000,  of  which  railway  equipment  forms  about 
50  per  cent.  Twenty-five  per  cent  is  industrial  equipment,  of 
which  about  half  is  textile  machinery  and  10  per  cent  mining  ma- 
chinery. Ten  per  cent  is  aOTicultural  machinery  and  5  per  cent 
electrical  equipment  and  machinery.  There  is  a  good  and  increasing 
market  for  small  and  cheap  coffee,  rice,  and  sugar  machinery,  one 
of  the  largest  items  of  importation  being  small  "trapiches"  for  sugar 
grinding,  operated  by  oxen  or  mule  power. 

''  La  Estrella  "  foundry,  of  Medellin  (see  p.  235) ,  is  turning  out  a  very 
good  line  of  coffee-cleaning  machinery,  cacao  roasters,  and  sugar 
presses,  which  compete  favorably  with  the  imported  articles  and  for 
which  there  is  a  very  large  demand. 

On  account  of  the  fact  that  the  import  duties  are  assessed  on  the 
gross  weight  of  the  package,  the  demand  is  for  the  lightest  possible 
equipment  and  the  most  simple  in  construction  and  operation,  on 
account  of  the  general  want  of  knowledge  in  the  country  of  machinery 
care  or  adjustment  and  the  lack  of  repair  facilities. 

Plows  are  used  only  in  the  Bogota  district,  for  wheat  growing. 
The  disk  plow  has  become  a  general  favorite  in  this  region,  the  14- 
inch  size  with  ox  draw  being  tne  type  most  used.  The  native  mules 
are  too  light  for  heavy  plow  work,  and  oxen  are  always  used. 

PROSPECTIVE  MARKET  FOR  GASOLINE  MOTORS  AND  EQUIPMENT. 

Now  that  high-grade  petroleum  has  been  developed  in  Colombia 
and  a  small  refinery  is  being  erected  at  Barranca  Bermeja,  on  the 
Ma^dalena  River,  from  which  oil  products  will  be  distributed  to  the 
limit  of  the  present  transportation  system  of  the  country  (see  p.  129), 
it  may  be  j^edicted  that  Colombia  will  soon  offer  a  larger  field  for 
the  sale  of  small  gas  engines  for  heavy  work,  marine  work,  small 
lighting  plants,  etc.,  throughout  the  country.  Even  during  1918 
and  1919  several  hundred  lighting  sets  were  sold  in  Colombia,  as  a 
result  of  just  one  visit  by  an  agent  from  Panama. 

As  regards  tractors,  etc.,  for  farm  work,  a  field  is  opening  up  in 
the  region  of  Cartagena,  where  there  are  developments  in  sugar, 
rice,  tobacco,  and  other  crops.  On  account  of  the  broken  nature  of 
the  country  and  the  consequent  general  lack  of  roads  and  means  of 
communication,  and  also  because  of  the  cheaper  and  more  depend- 
able labor  in  the  interior  (as  around  Bogota),  tractors  will  be  too 
expensive  outside  of  the  more  accessible  coast  regions  of  the  Carib- 
bean littoral.2 

2  See  circular  of  Latin  American  Division  published  in  Commerce  Keports  for  June  10, 1919,  covering  the 
automobile,  truck,  and  tractor  markets  of  the  West  Indies.  Central  America,  and  the  north  coast  of  South 
America. 

37558°— 21 12 


178      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

COLOMBIAN  IMPORTS  OP  AGRICULTURAL  IMPLEMENTS  AND  MACHINERY. 

The  foUowinff  table,  showing  Colombian  imports  of  agricultural 
implements  and  machinery,  has  been  taken  from  the  Colombian 
Government  import  returns  for  1916: 

(Kilo-2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  dollar-tO.9733.] 


Kinds. 


Plows , 

Tools  (miscellaneous). 

Cart  axles 

Cart  and  wagon  parts 

Wheel  tires 

Wheelbarrows 

Tools  not  specified 

Insect  destroyers 

Brush  hooks 

Sugar  machinei  y 

Rice  machinei  y 

Cacao  machinei  y 

Coffee  machinery 

Com  machinery 


Kilos. 

Value. 

Colombian 

dollan. 

11,162 

2,167 

291,914 

83,991 

30,951 

5,150 

1,039 

233 

191 

42 

10,041 

1,698 

10,359 

1,5M 

730 

168 

76 

65 

151,367 

35,948 

239 

135 

1,076 

525 

58,650 

18,302 

2,449 

450 

Kinds. 


Cane  cutters 

Fodder  cutters 

Tobacco  cutters 

Flour -mill  machinery 

Trapiches  and  parts  of. . . 
Agricultural  machinei y.. 

Cream  separators 

General  machinery 

Artesian-well  equipment. 

Gasoline  motors 

Rakes 

Scythes 

Drills 


KUoa. 


.  987 

322 

663 

64,652 

23,044 

448,433 

91 

438,104 

1,957 

12,462 

1,190 

633 

1,813 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 

154 

92 

458 

15, 105 

4,887 

88,509 

20 

133,044 

1,002 

5,236 

409 

107 

515 


Note. — The  total  of  Group  5  in  the  Colombian  returns,  covering  machinery  and  implement  imports  of 
all  kinds,  amounted  to  3,007,869  kilos,  valued  at  830,622  dollars,  in  1916.  Only  those  items  pertinent  to 
agricultiu"e  are  given  in  the  above  list. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  1916  was  a  war  year  when  exports 
of  hardware  and  iron  and  steel  manufactures  were  restricted  by  the 
Allied  nations. 

In  1917  the  port  of  Barranquilla  handled  imports  of  agricultural  im- 
plements to  the  amount  of  484,959  Colomoian  dollars,  of  which 
344,063  dollars  came  from  the  United  States,  102,640  dollars  from 
Great  Britain,  4,556  dollars  from  France,  7,841  dollars  from  Spain, 
and  5,859  dollars  from  other  countries.  Machinery  amounted  to 
204,210  dollars,  of  which  189,008  dollars'  worth  was  purchased  in  the 
United  States. 

Agricultural  and  mining  tools  and  machinery  imported  through 
the  racific  port  of  Buenaventura  during  1917  amounted  to  190,862 
kilos,  valued  at  69,990  Colombian  dollars. 

Agricultural  machinery  and  tools  imported  through  Cartagena 
amounted  to  324,724  Colombian  dollars  in  1915  and  to  193,862  dollars 
in  1916. 

NECESSITY  OF  PROPER  PACKING  AND  EXPUCTT  INSTRUCTIONS. 

Packing  should  be  as  light  as  possible,  consistent  with  the  proper 
protection  of  contents.  Machinery  and  metal  articles  intended  for 
the  interior  should  be  waterproofed. 

When  machinery  such  as  tractors,  gang  plows,  thrashing  machinery, 
etc.,  is  shipped  "knocked  down,"  detailed  instructions  should  ac- 
company the  shipment,  in  Spanish,  for  the  assembling  of  these 
machines,  and  a  lull  set  of  spare  and  replacement  parts  should  ac- 
company the  shipment  in  every  case,  since  the  loss  of  a  bolt  or  the 
breaKage  of  any  small  part  may  make  it  impossible  to  use  the  machine 
for  that  planting  or  harvesting  season,  or  until  the  needed  part  can 
be  obtained  from  New  York,  tne  nearest  supply  point. 


AGRICULTURE.  ,  179 

Detailed  and  explicit  instructions  for  operation  should  be  attached,  in 
Spanish.  Blue  prints  of  complicated  machinery  should  be  furnished, 
with  all  lettering  in  Spanish.  In  1919  there  arrived  at  Cartagena 
a  large  shipment  of  American  agricultural  machinery,  which  included 
a  steam  tractor,  gang  plows,  reapers,  and  a  rice  thrasher,  all  "  knocked 
down."  Not  a  smgle  blue  print  of  any  of  the  machines  accompanied 
the  shipment,  even  in  English;  there  were  also  no  instructions  or 
anything  to  show  how  the  machines  should  be  assembled,  in  either 
English  or  Spanish.  Spanish  would  have  been  best,  but  with  English 
the  buyers  could  have  brought  in  some  English-speaking  friend  to 
translate  the  instructions  for  them.  But,  without  instructions  even 
in  English,  these  people,  who  had  never  seen  such  machinery  before 
(much  less  handled  it) ,  had  to  go  to  work  to  get  the  parts  together  as 
best  the^  could,  puzzling  each  adjustment  out  by  guesswork,  com- 
bined with  plenty  of  native  ingenuity,  and  the  job  took  months  of 
time.  What  was  said  about  the  American  factories  that  allowed 
machinery  to  be  sent  to  Colombia  in  this  condition,  without  instruc- 
tions for  assembling  it,  was,  to  say  the  least,  extremely  uncompli- 
mentary to  American  export  methods,  and  manv  comparisons  were 
made  with  former  machinery  shipments  received  at  Cartagena  from 
Germany  and  the  United  Kingdom. 

The  Colombians  have  long  suffered  in  this  respect  at  the  hands  of 
careless,  thoughtless  American  exporters,  who  seem  to  think  that  there 
are  as  many  trained  and  experienced  mechanics  in  Colombia  as  there 
are  in  the  United  States.  Exporters  of  all  kinds  of  machinery  to 
Colombia  should  take  the  trouble  to  inform  themselves  of  the  con- 
ditions obtaining  in  the  district  where  the  shipment  is  going  and  to 
help  the  purchasers  in  every  way  toward  the  successful  operation  of 
the  equipment  furnished  them. 

If  a  machine  does  not  work  at  all  or  operates  badly  because  it  is 
not  properly  assembled,  the  people  of  the  district,  who  are  watching 
the  results  of  the  pioneers  with  the  new  machines,  are  very  likely  to 
sav  that  the  machine  itself  is  no  good  and  a  failure,  and  thus  future 
sales  in  that  district  are  lost  to  the  manufacturer  or  exporter  on 
account  of  popular  prejudice. 


DOMESTIC  MANUFACTURING. 

STATISTICS  OF  INDUSTRIAL  ENTERPRISES. 

At  the  close  of  1915  there  were,  according  to  Colombian  statistics, 
121  manufacturing  plants  in  Colombia,  representing  an  investment  of 
$12,406,000  United  States  currency: 


Establishments. 

Num- 
ber. 

Caiiltal 
invested. 

Establishments.               ^™" 

Capital 
invested. 

Textiles  tvnd  tliread 

21 
2 
1 
5 
0 
5 
8 
8 
3 

5 

$3,  .530, 000 

2,000,000 

1,200,000 

1,086,000 

780,000 

750,000 

515,700 

428,000 

420,000 

433,000 

Soap  and  candles 

18 
6 
2 
3 
3 

I 

1 
16 

(330,000 
255,000 

Sugar 

Shoes 

Tanning  extract 

Oil  renniiiR 

200, 00^ 
l.j0,0(J0 

Electric  light  and  power 

Flour  mills 

Tilass and  classware 

53,000 

Matches 

Carbonated  beverages 

38,200 
22  000 

Chocolate  and  candies 

Distilled  liquors 

Cigars  and  cigarettes 

Perfumery 

All  others 

10,000 

Cement  and  artificial  stone,  til- 
ing, etc. 
Beer  and  ice. 

2ai,100 

Total..., 

121 

12,406  000 

The  above  figures  do  not  include  several  important  plants  now 
operating  in  Colombia.  Among  other  factories  not  listed,  there  is 
an  important  tannery  at  Bogota  and  the  rice  mill  of  Cartagena. 
Textile  mills  have  all  increased  their  capitalization  since  1915,  and 
the  above  amount  of  $3,530,000  is  too  low  by  half;  the  total  amount 
invested  in  textile  factories  by  the  end  of  1920  will  probably  reach 
$10,000,000. 

Of  the  factories  included  in  the  above  table,  the  city  of  Bogota 
contains  40,  Medellin  30,  Barranquilla  18,  and  Cartagena  12.  Recent 
developments  in  the  increase  of  textile  mills  in  Medellin  and  its  dis- 
trict, however,  tend  to  put  that  city  in  first  place  as  the  manufactur- 
ing center  of  the  country.  There  are  also  a  corset  factory,  a  shirt  and 
collar  factory,  and  a  large  candy  and  cracker  factory  in  Medellin  that 
are  not  listed  above. 

Despite  the  fact  that  there  were  21  textile  plants  in  the  country, 
goods  of  this  character  to  the  value  of  3,343,383  Colombian  dollars 
were  imported  in  1915. 

The  domestic  factories  of  Colombia  owe  their  existence  to  high 
protective  tariffs  imposed  by  the  Government  on  the  competing 
miported  articles,  and  the  prices  obtained  for  domestic  manufactures 
are  fixed  by  the  c.  i.  f .  and  duty-paid  cost  of  imported  goods  of  similar 
quality.  Manufacturers  of  Colombia  have  the  advantage  also  of 
very  cheap  factory  labor,  but  in  turn  are  handicapped  by  the  neces- 
sity of  importing  nearly  all  of  their  raw  materials  and  all  of  their 
machinery  and  equipment. 

A  number  of  articles  of  foreign  manufacture  are  of  prohibitive  cost 
on  account  of  the  high  import  duties  imposed — chief  among  these 
being  canned  and  bottled  foodstuffs,  tobacco  products,  wines  and 
liquors,  and  leathers. 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR  EXPANSION. 

The  greatest  development  of  manufacturing  will  be  in  textile  lines. 
More  than  $4,000,000  was  invested  in  this  branch  of  industry  during 
1919,  several  large  new  plants  were  projected  and  planned,  and  two 

180 


DOMESTIC    MANUFACTURING.  181 

complete  mill  equipments  were  ordered  from  the  United  States.  The 
industry  is  handicapped  b;^  the  lack  of  sufficient  domestic  cotton, 
and  most  of  the  yarns  are  imported — formerly  from  England,  prin- 
cipally, but  now  in  considerable  amount  from  the  United  States. 
Next  in  importance  has  been  the  increase  in  investments  in  cigarette 
factories,  notably  in  Medellin.  Tobacco  is  brought  in  from  Santan- 
der  and  Tolima.  An  important  industry  is  saddlery,  and  there  is  in- 
creased interest  in  tanneries,  the  domestic  leathers  enjoying  an  ex- 
cellent demand,  far  in  excess  of  the  production. 

There  is  a  wide  opportunity  for  investment  in  textile  and  knitting 
mills,  tanneries,  sugar  mills,  etc.  The  small  shirt  factory  at  Medellin, 
recently  established,  is  paying  a  net  profit  of  5  per  cent  per  month  on 
the  capital  invested. 

Details  concerning  Colombia's  industrial  establishments  will  be 
found  in  the  sections  covering  the  several  commercial  districts  (be- 
ginning on  p.  185). 

PANAMA-HAT  MAKING  AND  EXPORTATION. 

Hat  making  is  the  largest  community  industry  in  Colombia,  and 
"Panama"  hats  (so  called)  form  one  of  the  chief  items  of  export. 
In  1912  the  exports  were  60,000  dozen,  valued  at  1,174,641  Colom- 
bian dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0,9733  United  States  currency),  while  in 
1913  the  value  was  966,361  dollars.  In  1918  exports  of  hats 
amounted  to  689,328  dollars.  These  so-called  Panama  hats  are  about 
the  only  manufactures  of  Colombia  to  be  exported  on  any  large  scale 
at  the  present  time.  Prior  to  1900  Cuba  was  the  only  available 
market  for  Colombian  hats,  only  a  few  dozen  being  imported  into  the 
United  States,  while  to-day  the  United  States  takes  almost  all 
these  exports.  In  addition  to  the  exports,  there  is  a  large  home 
consumption. 

The  principal  centers  of  the  hat-making  industry  are  in  Antioquia, 
Huila,  Narino,  and  Santander.  From  iVntioquia  come  the  "Aguadas" 
(town  of  Aguada)  and  "^Vntioquias  "  hats;  the  ''Suazas"  come  from 
Huila  (town  of  Suaza);  the  "Zapatocas"  and  "Girones"  are  made 
in  Santander;  and  the  "Pastos"  and  "Tumacos"  come  from  Narino, 
from  the  regions  around  the  towns  that  give  the  hats  their  names. 
The  hat  trade  of  Tumaco  is  increasing. 

All  Panama  hats  are  made  of  the  "toquilla"  palm  {Carludovica 
palmata).  The  young  leaf  is  used  for  hat  making,  being  cut  off  the 
palm,  split  into  thin  strips  with  a  wooden  knife,  and  bleached  in  the 
sun,  to  DC  woven  into  hats.  These  palm  strips  are  kept  damp  to  pre- 
vent breaking  and  splitting  in  weaving.  At  Sucre  in  iVntioquia  the 
hat  weavers  go  into  a  series  of  damp  caves  near  the  town  to  do  the 
weaving,  the  moist  air  keeping  the  splits  at  the  right  consistency. 
At  La  Union,  near  Pasto,  hats  as  fine  as  those  of  the  famous  Monte 
Cristo  district  of  Ecuador  are  being  made  to-day. 

It  takes  a  person  from  one  day  to  a  week,  or  more,  to  weave  a  hat, 
according  to  the  fineness.  Hats  are  usually  sold  to  the  local  mer- 
chants, who  export  them. 

The  work  is  done  mostly  by  the  women  and  the  children,  and, 
while  exports  have  decreased  smce  1912,  the  industry  seems  to  have 
increased  in  Colombia  on  account  of  the  growing  domestic  demand 
for  the  hats,  which  are  universally  worn  by  the  working  people. 


182      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HAl^DBOGK. 

Competition  from  Japan  in  the  foreign  markets  is  expected. 
Japan  is  buying  the  "toquilla"  (stripped  and  ready  for  weaving)  in 
Peru,  Ecuador,  and  Colombia  in  increasing  quantities,  and,  also,  the 
toquilla  palm  is  being  cultivated  in  Formosa  and  Japan.  Labor  is 
even  cheaper  in  Japan  and  Formosa  than  in  Colombia  and  Ecuador, 
and  in  the  South  American  countries  organization  in  the  industry  is 
lacking  to  a  great  extent. 

Concerning  stiff  straw  hats  the  following  report  was  submitted  in 
1918  by  Consul  Claude  E.  Guyant,  of  Barranquilla: 

Straw  hats  are  quite  generally  used  in  Colombia  the  year  round,  but  the  stiff  straw 
hat  has  always  been  imported  until  recently.  The  Panama  hat  is  manufactured  of 
native  grasses  in  the  interior  part  of  the  country  and  is  largely  worn,  although  its  cost 
in  the  better  grades  has  been  always  higher  tharl  that  of  the  imported  straw  hat. 
Within  the  last  few  years  the  latter  has  been  increasing  in  popularity.  Two  small 
factories  have  been  started  in  the  coast  country,  at  Barranquilla  and  at  Cartagena,  for 
the  manufacture  of  straw  hats.  It  is  understood  that  the  Cartagena  factory  has  not 
been  very  successful,  owing  to  faulty  management,  but  the  Barranqiiilla  plant  has 
been  placed  in  charge  of  a  competent  manager  fi'om  New  York,  and  its  product  is 
meeting  with  an  increasing  demand  from  all  parts  of  the  country.  This  factory  is 
equipped  with  15  sewing  machines  operated  by  electric  power  and  4  presses  and  has 
a  present  capacitj^  of  25  dozen  hats  per  day. 

The  ordinary  stiff  straw  hat  is  made  in  several  different  styles  of  braid,  also  men's 
hats  in  soft  straw  and  children's  and  women's  hats  in  soft  straw,  white  and  colored.' 
Prices  range  from  $9  to  $24  per  dozen,  according  to  style  and  quality.  Retail  prices 
are  from  $1  up,  the  most  popular  grade  selling  for  $1.50. 

Materials  for  this  factory  are  all  imported  from  the  United  States,  although  the 
braid  used  comes  ori^nally  from  Italy,  China,  and  Japan,  principally  from  the  latter 
country.  Straw  braid  is  imported  at  the  rate  of  16,000  pieces  of  60  yards  each  for  a 
year's  supply. 

The  hats  manufactured  here  compare  favorably  with  the  imported  product,  and 
their  reception  in  the  local  markets  has  been  very  gratifying  to  the  promoters  of  the 
enterprise. 

BAGS  AND  SACKS— COLOMBIAN  FIBER  RESOURCES. 

Unable  to  obtain  sufficient  jute  sacks  from  abroad  for  the  1918 
or  1919  coffee  crop,  Colombia  has  turned  to  its  resources  of  native 
fibers,  and  in  1919  succeeded  fairly  well  in  furnishing  domestic 
manufactured  sacks  for  the  coffee  crop  of  that  year.  Small  bag 
factories  have  sprung  up  all  over  the  country,  in  which  sacks  are 
made  of  the  native  "fique"  or  species  of  henequen  which  grows 
well  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country  and  is  also  cultivated  to 
some  extent,  though  natural  plantations  are  mostly  utilized.  The 
fiber,  which  is  extracted  from  tne  leaves  of  the  plant  by  hand,  usually 
brings  a  higher  price  in  Colombia  than  could  be  obtained  for  it  by 
exporting  to  the  United  States-r-prices  averaging  around  12  cents 
per  pound  of  500  grams,  delivered  at  the  town. 

Prices  obtainea  for  the  fique-fiber  coffee  sacks  averaged,  during 
1919,  1  Colombian  dollar  each,  or  2  dollars  for  a  "carga"  of  two 
sacks.  In  Medellin  a  company  was  being  organized  to  start  a  bag 
factory  on  a  large  scale,  using  modern  sack-making  machinery,  etc. 
In  Medellin,  also,  "La  Estrella"  foundry  is  making  a  very  good 
"  defiberating "  machine  like  those  used  in  Mexico  for  henequen, 
and  these  machines  are  being  used  to  an  increasing  extent  in  the 
interior. 

"FIQUE"  AND  "PITA"  FIBERS  AND  THEaR  USES. 

Near  Rio  Hacha  there  are  large  areas  of  natural  plantations  of 
"fique"  (as  the  plant  is  known  locally),  which  grows  very  well  on 
the  semiarid,  well-drained,  lime-impregnated  lands  of  this  region. 


DOMESTIC   MANUFACTURING.  183 

There  are  enough  of  the  natural  plants  to  justify  exploitation  on  a 
fairly  large  scale,  and  large  plantations  could  be  developed  in  time 
from  the  natural  ones  now  existing.  The  species  of  agave  produces 
a  better  fiber  than  the  sisal  of  the  Bahamas  or  the  henequen  of 
Mexico,  being  finer,  whiter,  and  of  greater  tensile  strength  (samples 
have  been  submitted  to  the  United  States  Department  of  Agriculture 
by  Prof.  Dawe,  agriculture  expert  for  the  Colombian  Government). 
However,  it  is  not  thought  that  the  United  States  will  need  to 
develop  new  fiber  sources  for  some  time,  and  there  is  therefore  little 
interest  in  these  fields. 

The  "fique"  fiber  of  Colombia  is  used  throughout  the  country  for 
a  great  many  purposes.  Sandals  are  woven  of  the  fiber  and  are 
the  universal  footwear  of  the  natives  of  town  and  country — ^ropes 
of  many  kinds  are  made.  Hammocks  and  mats  are  made,  and  local 
factories  are  also  turning  out  a  very  good  long  house  mat  or  "  runner," 
done  in  colors,  which  makes  a  verv  good  and  serviceable  covering 
for  the  rough  brick  and  tile  floors  oi  the  country.  Small  hand  bags, 
called  "mochillas,"  are  also  woven  of  this  fiber,  serving  the  same 

Eurpose  as  the  "moral"  in  Mexico,  though  the  "mochilla"  of  Colom- 
ia  is  round  in  shape  and  not  flat  and  square  like  the  "moral."  The 
most  useful  pm-pose  for  which  the  "fic[ue"  serves  in  Colombia,  aside 
from  that  oi  making  coffee  sacks,  is  in  the  manufactore  of  "sobre- 
enjalmes,"  the  packsaddles  used  on  the  mules  and  oxen  for  transport 
in  the  moimtainous  interior. 

The  total  annual  production  of  "fique"  fiber  in  Colombia  must 
be  enormous,  but  there  has  been  little  organized  effort  to  develop 
the  industry.  The  work  is  carried  on  by  small  operators  in  an 
individual  manner  all  over  the  country,  generally  supplying  local  needs 
only,  though  there  is  beginning  to  develop  a  considerable  domestic 
traae  in  couee  sacks  made  in  the  country,  the  exchange  being  between 
commercial  districts  and  local  markets. 

The  species  of  agave  Furcraea  macropJiylla  grows  wild  in  the 
Department  of  Antioquia,  and  little  has  oeen  done  to  exploit  the 
fiber  commercially  for  export,  though  small  lots  have  been  ex- 
ported in  former  times.  Very  few  defiberating  machines  are  used, 
though  "La  Estrella"  shop  near  Medellin  manufactures  a  good 
machine  of  this  kind.  The  usual  manner  of  extraction  is  by  hand, 
this  work  being  done  by  the  Indians.  TJie  largest  cultivated  planta- 
tion is  located  on  the  Ma^dalena  River,  near  Mompos,  and  contains 
about  50,000  plants.  This  plantation  has  easy  access  to  the  river 
traffic,  and  the  fiber  could  be  easily  exported  if  prices  could  be 
obtained  to  warrant  operations  on  a  large  scale. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  fiber  of  Colombia  is  the  "pita."  This 
plant  does  not  belong  to  the  well-known  agave  family  but  to  the 
pineapple  family  (Bromeliaceae)  and  is  found  in  all  tropical  parts 
of  the  country — existing  in  large  natural  plantations  in  the  region 
of  the  Atrato  River,  near  the  Gulf  of  Uraba,  and  in  the  Chiriguani 
district  of  Santander  and  Magdalena  (Cesar  River  country),  where 
it  is  found  matted  in  the  almost  impenetrable  tropical  jungles. 

The  leaves  of  the  "pita"  plant  are  much  longer  and  more  slender 
than ^ those  of  the  henequen  ("fique"),  sometimes  attaining  a  length 
of  18  to  20  feet.  The  fiber  is  finer  than  that  of  the  henequen,  more 
uniform  in  construction,  and  very  much  stronger — that  is,  of  greater 
tensile  strength.     It  is  used  by  the  natives  for  making  hammocks,  nets, 


184     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

strong  cord,  and  for  sewing  in  leather.  It  is  the  finest  fiber  kno^^^l 
for  marine  work,  making  a  light,  hard  line  (whale  line),  practically 
impervious  to  salt  water  for  a  very  long  period  and  of  great  strength, 
exceeding  that  of  all  other  lines  of  the  same  weight  and  diameter. 

The  fiber  of  the  *'pita"  has  not,  as  yet,  been  commercially  ex- 
ploited, chieflv  because  of  the  difficulties  of  extracting  the  fiber  from 
the  leaf,  which  is  less  "juicy"  than  that  of  the  henequen,  being  dry 
and  hard  to  clean  from  the  fiber  itself.  Experiments  have  been  made 
in  "rotting"  the  leaves  to  make  " defiberation "  more  easy. 

IMPORTS  OF  JUTE  AND  BAGS. 

In  1917  imports  of  jute  into  Colombia  from  the  United  Kingdom 
amounted  to  225,000  Colombian  dollars  in  value,  and  prior  to  the  war 
Colombia  purchased  more  than  1,000,000  yards  of  jute  piece  goods  in 
Great  Britain.  Jute  imports  in  1916  amounted  to  516,420  kilos, 
valued  at  159,426  dollars.  In  1918,  80,324  kilos  of  fiber  sacks,  valued 
at  33,826  dollars,  were  exported  by  Colombia.  Exports  to  Colombia 
from  the  United  States  of  bags,  twine,  etc.,  have  been  as  follows: 


Kinds. 


Bags,  vegetable-fiber 

Cordage 

Twine,  binder,  etc 

All   other   manufactures   of 
vegetable  fibers 


Fiscal  year  1916. 


Pounds.   Value, 


270,599 


$55,258 
31,923 
69, 147 


Fiscal  year  1917. 


Pounds.    Value 


212, 805 


16,215    15,021 


$39,473 
33,437 
120,400 


Calendar  year 
1918. 


Pounds.    Value, 


65,531 


$.39,062 
IS,  026 
7,143 

10,842 


Calendar  year 
1919. 


Pounds.    Value 


222,426 


$143,566 
49,727 
28,180 

28,697 


ECONOMIC  VALUE  OF  NATIVE  FIBERS. 


It  would  appear  that  Colombia  possesses  great  natural  resources  in 
fibers,  almost  untouched  as  yet,  and  that  there  are  great  areas  of  land 
suitable  for  fiber  cultivation  adjacent  to  seaports,  etc. — where, 
however,  labor  is  scarce  and  difficult  to  secure  and  retain.  Statistics 
show  that  imports  of  jute  and  bags  decreased  considerably  during 
the  war,  because  of  the  lack  of  tonnage,  the  consequent  inability  of 
the  importers  to  obtain  needed  supplies,  and  the  fact  that  the  domestic 
resources  in  fibers  were  utilized  and  were  capable  of  supplying  the 
demand,  at  least  during  the  period  of  high  prices  for  sacks  in  1919. 
When  shipments  of  jute  are  renewed  from  India,  it  will  be  a  question 
whether  trie  domestic  product  can  stand  the  competition  of  the  cheap 
imported  article. 

In  1918  an  attempt  was  made  near  Barranquilla  to  cultivate  the 
"malva"  plant  as  a  substitute  for  jute  in  anticipation  of  the  shortage 
of  bags  for  the  coffee  crop  of  1919.  A  considerable  acreage  was  seeded- 
in  malva  near  Calamar  (Banco)  on  the  Magdalena  River,  and  a  snck- 
making  factory  with  modern  machinery  was  installed  at  Barranquilla, 
the  work  being  in  charge  of  an  English  jute  expert  from  India  who 
promoted  the  project.  The  malva  plant  itself  did  very  well,  but  labor 
was  lacking  at  cutting  time,  most  of  the  crop  was  lost,  and  no  sacks 
were  made  in  the  factory.  Several  tons  of  the  cleaned  fiber  were  ient 
to  the  United  States  as  a  trial  shipment  but,  from  all  accounts,  did 
not  meet  with  success  on  the  American  market. 


ECONOMIC    CHARACTERISTICS    OF    NINE    COMMERCIAL 

DISTRICTS. 

9 

INTRODUCTION:  NECESSITY  FOR  TREATING  EACH  DISTRICT 
SEPARATELY. 

On  account  of  the  topographical  barriers,  Colombia  must  be  con- 
sidered as  a  group  of  commercial  districts,  each  different  from  the 
other  and  each  possessing  its  distinct  features  with  respect  to  climate, 
transportation,  living  conditions,  character  of  the  people,  and  other 
economic  and  social  factors.  All  these  conditions  affect  trade  in 
many  ways,  such  as  the  packing  of  goods,  the  kind  of  merchandise 
wanted,  the  buying  seasons,  and  similar  considerations.  For  corfi- 
mcrcial  purposes  each  of  these  districts  must  be  regarded  as  a  sep- 
arate unit,  and  for  this  reason  a  separate  section  in  this  chapter  has 
been  devoted  to  each,  as  follows: 

Santa  Marta  and  commercial  district. 

Barranquilla  district,  Department  of  Atlantico,  and  Magdalena  River. 

Cartagena  and  commercial  district. 

Medellin  and  commercial  district. 

Bogota  and  commercial  district. 

Manizales  and  commercial  district. 

Cali  and  commercial  district. 

Bucaramanga  and  commercial  district. 

Cucuta  and  commercial  district. 

In  each  of  the  above-mentioned  sections  there  is  a  discussion  of 
the  econoniic  characteristics  of  the  district — its  means  of  transporta- 
tion, cities,  population,  living  conditions,  education,  local  manufac- 
turing, imports,  agriculture,  live  stock,  mining,  banking,  and  com- 
mercial peculiarities. 

The  country  is  so  broken  in  character  and  the  distances  between 
the  several  districts  are  so  great  (with  the  difficulties  augmented  by 
the  lack  of  means  of  transportation)  that  no  single  commercial  enter- 
prise can  cover  the  entire  country  in  an  adequate  manner,  and 
branches  are  necessary  in  each  of  the  important  centers,  such  as 
Barranquilla,  Cartagena,  Medellin,  Bogota,  Manizales,  Bucaramanga, 
and  Cali. 

Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  are  onl^  70  miles  apart,  but  there  is 
little  intercommunication  or  commercial  exchange  between  the  two 
seaports,  though  there  exists  a  rivalry  for  the  trade  of  the  interior 
to  the  cast  of  the  Magdalena  River.  Cartag^ena's  territory  consists 
primarily  of  the  Rio  Sinu  country  and  the  Choco  Intendency,  with 
which  it  has  communication  by  steamer  along  the  coast  and  then  up 
the  Rio  Atrato;  wliile  Barranquilla  receives  and  sliips  three-fourths 
of  the  products  of  the  interior,  having  better  access  to  the  Magdalena. 

Medellin  takes  care  of  the  territory  of  Antioquia,  importing  direct. 
Manizales,  too,  imports  direct,  though  manufacturers'  agents  in  Me- 
dellin also  cover  Manizales  by  a  four-day  trip  through  the  mountains 
of  Antioquia  by  mule,  making  about  two  trips  yearly.  The  import 
and  wholesale  trade  of  Manizales  is  well  organized,  and  on  account 
of  the  capital  and  foreign  connections  of  its  merchants,  Manizales  is 
able  to  sell  at  wholesale  to  Armenia  and  Cali  to  a  great  extent. 

185 


186     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Bogota  is  the  center  of  trade  and  commercial  activity  for  the  great 
region  of  the  table-land  and  even  reaches  part  of  Santander,  all  of 
Tolima,  and  Huila.  The  trade  of  Bogota  is  greatly  handicapped  by 
the  condition  of  transportation  on  the  Ma^dalona  River;  goods  are 
delayed  for  months  over  this  route,  and  freight  is  very  costly.  The 
building  of  the  connecting  link  of  railway  between  Beltran  (on  the 
Upper  Kiver)  and  Girardot,  which  is  now  under  contract  will  elimi- 
nate the  delays  and  disadvantages  of  the  Upper  River  navigation 
and  will  greatly  assist  Bogota  commercially. 

The  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway  between  Cali  and  Ibague, 
over  the  Quindio  Pass  of  the  Central  Andes,  is  the  most  important 
problem  of  Bogota,  since  it  will  put  that  city  in  direct  rail  communi- 
cation with  the  Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura  and  will  contribute 
more  than  anything  else  to  the  commercial  expansion  of  the  Bogota 
district. 

The  trade  of  Cali  takes  in  all  of  the  Cauca  Valley,  including  Popayan 
to  the  south,  and  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway,  mentioned 
above,  will  eventually  make  Cali  the  second  city  of  the  country  in 
commercial  importance. 

The  Departments  of  Huila  and  Narino  are  handicapped  by  the 
broken  nature  of  their  territory  and  the  lack  of  population.  The 
completion  of  the  wagon  road  now  being  built  from  Pasto  to  Barba- 
coas  will  greatly  assist  commerce  through  the  port  of  Tumaco  and 
via  Barbacoas 

An  agent  or  branch  house  located  in  Barranquilla  could  not  sell 
to  Bogota  or  Medellin  (a  letter  takes  longer  to  go  from  the  coast  to 
Bogota  than  from  the  coast  to  New  York),  and  the  same  applies  to 
sales  in  Manizales,  Cali,  etc. 

The  best  method  for  covering  the  country  conamercially  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Colombian  commission  houses  established  in  New 
YorK.  These  houses  are  principally  interested  in  one  particular  dis- 
trict, such  as  Medellin,  for  example,  where  their  main  offices  for  the 
country  are  located,  including  sample  rooms,  etc.  Members  of  the 
firm,  or  others  employed  as  agents,  also  have  opened  offices  in  the 
other  commercial  centers  of  the  country — these  offices  importing 
directly  through  the  firm  in  New  York  and  ordering  shipments  sent 
m  via  Barranquilla  or  Buenaventura,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  house 
located  in  Cali  sends  salesmen  to  Popayan,  Tumaco,  Barbacoas,  and 
Pasto  twice  a  year.  As  these  houses  are  also  large  purchasers  and 
handlers  of  coffee,  hides,  and  other  Colombian  products,  this 'arrange- 
ment is  the  most  advantageous  one. 

Mistakes  have  been  made  in  the  past  by  American  exporters  in 
intrusting  the  entire  country  to  one  agent,  expecting  him  to  travel 
and  cover  the  commercial  centers  other  than  the  one  where  he  resides. 
This  can  not  be  done  in  an  efficient  and  economical  manner.  Travel 
takes  too  much  time,  and  is  too  expensive,  and  moreover,  since  all 
lines  are  fairly  well  represented  in  each  center  by  resident  agents, 
the  volume  of  business  to  be  obtained  by  traveling  from  one  center 
to  another  is  too  small  to  compensate  for  the  effort  involved,  unless 
the  representation  is  of  some  special  article  or  line  in  which  the  mar- 
gin of  profit  is  very  high  and  the  sales  sufficiently  important  to  war- 
rant this  extra  expense. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      187 
SANTA  MARTA  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION  OF  CITY— CLIMATE— POPULATION. 

Santa  Marta,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Magdalena,  is  a 
seaport  on  the  northwest  coast  of  Colombia,  60  miles  east  of  Puerto 
Colombia  (at  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  River) ,  and  has  a  popula- 
tion of  6,000.  The  city  streets  are  not  paved  and  there  is  no  drain- 
age or  sewerage  system  of  any  kind.  The  soil  is  sandy  and  dry  and 
absorbs  moisture,  to  which  fact  may  be  attributed  the  absence  of  ex- 
cessive disease,  considering  the  tropical  climate.  The  average  an- 
nual rainfall  is  18  inches.  The  precipitation  is  very  erratic,  some 
years  being  exceedingly  dry  with  not  more  than  6  to  9  inches  of 
rainfall.  Irrigation  is  necessary  in  the  banana  region  south  of  the 
city.  The  average  maximum  temperature  is  103°  F.  and  the  aver- 
age minimum  70°  F.  There  are  two  seasons,  winter  and  summer, 
winter  being  the  rainy  season,  beginning  in  May  and  lasting  until 
September.  The  rainfall  in  the  Santa  Marta  district,  however,  is 
affected  by  the  proximity  of  the  semiarid  Goajira  Peninsula  region 
and  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  The  climate  and  rainfall  of  Santa  Marta 
must  not  be  confused  with  that  of  Barranquilla  and  the  coast  region 
farther  west  where  the  humidity  is  much  greater. 

Fifteen  per  cent  of  the  people  are  of  Spanish  descent,  the  remainder 
being  mestizos,  or  mixtures  of  Negro  and  Indian.  There  is  a  very 
wide  social  difference,  as  in  all  other  South  American  countries. 
About  80  per  cent  of  the  people  are  illiterate,  and  the  local  schools 
consist  of  a  Jesuit  college  and  six  private  schools  which  are  assisted 
by  the  Government.  These  private  schools  are  installed  in  the  homes 
of  the  masters  and  have  an  average  attendance  of  20  pupils  in  the 
primary  grades  of  education.  With  the  exception  of  the  Catholic 
college  where  young  men  attend  (studying  for  the  priesthood,  prin- 
cipally), there  is  no  higher  education. 

COMMERCIAL  REGION  TRIBUTARY  TO  SANTA  MARTA. 

The  Santa  Marta  district  consists  of  the  rich  valley  extending  south 
from  the  town  as  far  as  Fundacion,  the  present  terminus  of  the  Santa 
Marta  Railway.  The  main  business  of  this  valley  is  that  of  the 
banana  plantations,  only  sufficient  corn,  beans,  vegetables,  etc.,  being 
grown  for  local  needs. 

The  country  is  arid  and  rough  south  from  Santa  Marta  and  is  not 
inhabited  until  the  important  town  of  Cienaga,  22  miles  distant,  is 
reached.  Cienaga  is  the  river  port  for  Santa  Marta,  as  from  here 
the  steamers  leave  for  Barranquilla,  the  route  being  through  the 
enormous  swamps  and  channels  of  the  delta  until  the  main  stream 
of  the  Magdalena  is  reached  at  Barranquilla,  a  distance  of  50  miles. 

Cienaga  has  a  population  of  6,000  people,  but  is  not  as  good  a  town 
as  Santa  Marta,  the  buildings  not  oeing  as  modern  and  the  entire 

Klace  having  the  appearance  of  an  overgrown  village.  It  is  the 
eadquarters  for  the  banana  workers,  many  of  whom  live  here,  and 
also  for  the  railway  workers.  Here  the  rich  banana  region  begins, 
the  good  land  opening  out  into  a  large  valley  with  the  foothills  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  to  the  east  and  the  swamps  of  the  Magdalena 
River  delta  to  the  west. 


188     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  otlior  towns  and  villages  of  the  district  (beginning  at  wSanta 
Marta),  all  t)f  which  are  on  or  near  the  railway,  are:  Ta^anga,  pop- 
ulation 600;  Mamatoca,  800;  Gaira,  1,500  (on  the  Gaira  River); 
Bonda,  600;  Masinga,  300;  Sevilla,  400. 

LIVING  CONDITIONS— PUBUC  UTIUTIES. 

The  cost  of  living  in  this  district  is  much  higher  than  anywhere  in 
the  interior,  with  the  exception  of  Bogota.  The  principal  articles  of 
diet  of  the  working  classes  are  plantains,  "yucca"  (cassava),  corn, 
and  beef.  Much  beef  is  eaten.  Fresh  and  dried  fish  should  also  be 
mentioned.  An  American  family  could  live  in  Santa  Marta  or 
Cienaga  at  a  minimum  cost  of  $40  and  a  maximum  cost  of  $60  per 
month.  The  only  hotel  in  Santa  Marta  charges  $2.50  per  day  for 
room,  with  meals  included.  This  rate  is  rather  high,  considering 
the  accommodations  offered. 

The  water  supply  of  Santa  Marta,  owned  and  operated  by  the 
municipality,  has  a  gravity  aqueduct  with, a  distance  of  2  miles  to 
the  intake  on  the  Rio  Manzanares.  There  are  about  2,000  feet  of 
ditch  work,  not  sided  with  stone  or  cement,  and  thence  the  rest 
of  the  distance  is  in  iron  pipe  of  6-inch  diameter.  The  service  con- 
sists of  one  faucet  in  each  house,  the  poorer  classes  using  the  water 
from  the  several  irrigation  ditches  near  the  town.  There  is  an  ice 
plant  having  a  total  capacity  of  12  tons  daily. 

The  local  manager  of  the  West  India  &  Colombian  Electric  Co., 
operates  the  electric-light  plant  at  Santa  Marta  and  a  telephone  system 
at  Barranquilla.  The  generating  plant  consists  of  a  lOO-horsepower 
Lefell  turbine  driving  a  90-kilowatt  alternating  110-volt  generator, 
and  is  located  at  Bonda  on  the  Manzanares  River,  10  miles  from  Santa 
Marta.  The  company  has  600  subscribers  using  the  equivalent  of  a 
thousand  25-watt  lamps.  In  Santa  Marta  there  is  also  an  auxiliary 
generating  plant  consisting  of  a  120  B.  H.  P.  Diesel  oil  engine,  belt 
connected  to  a  90-kilowatt  generator  of  the  same  rating  as  that  at  the 
hydroelectric  plant  on  the  river.     The  total  investment  is  $100,000. 

During  the  dry  months  there  is  barely  sufficient  water  in  the  river 
to  generate  45  kilowatts,  which  is  the  average  load  required  in  daily 
service.  During  the  rainy  season  ten  times  as  much  water  is  avail- 
able as  is  needed.  The  Diesel  engine  is  used  only  when  the  water- 
power  plant  is  out  of  commission  or  the  water  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
requirements.  This  engine  is  in  very  poor  condition  and  has  been 
badly  handled  by  the  unskilled  mechanics  in  charge.  There  is  also 
room  for  improvement  in  the  way  of  developing  more  power  by  tak- 
ing the  water  lower  down  where  an  additional  55-foot  fall  could  be 
secured,  greatly  increasing  the  capacity  of  the  plant.  The  equip- 
ment is  adequate  to  take  cai:e  of  tne  power  and  light  needs  of  Santa 
Marta  and  neighborhood  for  many  years  to  come  at  the  present  rate 
of  development,  the  only  thing  necessary  being  to  have  water  suf- 
ficient to  run  the  plant  at  its  capacity. 

This  company  has  ordered  a  number  of  small  motors  with  the  idea 
of  introducing  them  as  a  means  of  power  to  be  used  in  grinding 
com  meal,  shelling  coffee,  etc.,  in  the  neighborhood.  It  is  also  bring- 
ing down  a  small  irrigation  outfit  for  purposes  of  demonstration  vnth 
the  idea  of  promoting  the  use  of  power  for  irrigation  in  the  sur- 
rounding country. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      189 

Sufficient  corn,  beans,  vegetables,  etc.,  are  produced  in  the  district 
to  supply  normal  needs,  but — with  the  exception  of  dried  fish,  which 
is  shipped  to  the  interior  from  points  on  the  ''Cienaga"  between  the 
towns  of  Cienaga  and  Barranquilla — there  is  no  export  of  food- 
stuffs of  any  kind.  All  lard  consumed  in  the  district  was  formerly 
imported  from  the  United  States,  but  is  now  produced  locally  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  demand.  There  is  one  small  sugar 
plantation  near  Cienaga  which  produces  sufficient  panela — a  brown- 
sugar  cake — to  supply  local  needs  at  a  price  averaging  9  cents  per 
pound.  A  poor  grade  of  table  sugar  which  is  used  by  the  better 
classes,  and  which  is  of  a  slight  brown  color,  is  produced  near  Barran- 
quilla. 

Flour  is  now  being  shipped  into  the  district  from  the  interior,  near 
Bogota,  but  not  enough  is  being  received  from  domestic  sources  either 
here  or  at  Barranquilla. 

Santa  Marta  handles  few  nides,  compared  with  the  total  produc- 
tion of  the  region.  Most  of  these  are  brought  in  from  farther  south 
and  go  to  dealers  in  Barranquilla  via  Cienaga.  The  trade  in  hides 
at  Santa  Marta  is  only  local,  with  the  exception  of  some  brought 
down  from  Rio  Hacha,  which  are  all  handled  by  one  dealer. 

The  yearly  quantity  of  sun-dried  hides  in  good  condition  in  Santa 
Marta  will  not  exceed  1,500,  this  number  representing  local  con- 
sumption of  beef  only.  There  is  only  one  dealer  in  liides  in  Santa 
Marta;  he  is  also  a  cattle  buyer.  He  imports  80  tons  of  barbed  wire 
and  1,000  barrels  of  cement  from  the  United  States  annually.  ^ 

IMPORT  TRADE— STOCKS  CARRIED. 

The  chief  articles  imported  by  Santa  Marta  merchants  are  hard- 
ware, directly  from  the  United  States  since  the  war,  and  cotton  goods 
from  the  United  States  and  England,  in  about  equal  proportions. 

Formerly  the  merchants  of  Santa  Marta  imported  considerable 
merchandise  directly  through  the  port  of  Santa  Marta,  buying  prin- 
cipally from  German  houses,  being  attracted  by  the  180  days'  time 
given.  These  terms  suited  them,  and  they  say  they  would  be  glad 
to  return  to  this  system  of  credit.  They  are  ready  to  do  business 
with  American  firms,  but  want  longer  terms  than  the  120  d/d  now 
asketl  by  all  New  York  importers.  The  United  States  will  have  to 
meet  European  prices  and  study  tariff  laws,  packing,  and  local  re- 
quirements very  closely  if  it  is  to  increase  its  trade  with  this  district. 
Frices  and  terms  being  equal,  the  Santa  Marta  merchants  prefer  the 
American  market,  on  account  of  the  proximity  and  quick  delivery. 

During  the  war  Santa  Marta  became  tributary  to  Barranquilla, 
buying  from  there  at  wholesale,  with  the  exception  of  small  im- 
portations of  shirts  (fancy)  and  notions.  ^Ul  of  tne  merchants  have 
connections  with  some  export  house  in  New  York  with  which  they 
do  most  of  their  business  in  the  United  States,  but  they  do  not  really 
understand  trade  conditions  in  the  United  States.  Before  the  war 
they  dealt  with  Germanv,  because  Germany  gave  them  the  cheap 
goods  that  they  wanted  for  their  trade  and  also  had  evolved  a  good 
system  that  made  it  easy  for  the  merchants  and  that  they  thoroughly 
understood.  For  example,  merchants  do  not  understand  the  United 
States  monetary  system  and  do  not  know  the  difference  between  a 
Federal  reserve  bank  note,  a  gold  certificate,  and  bank-of-issue  cur- 
rency.    And  they  do  not  realize  what  guaranty  is  back  of  our  cur- 


190      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

rency.  A  great  deal  of  good  can  be  done  by  education  in  Colombia 
along  these  lines. 

The  merchants  of  Santa  Marta  are  progressive  and  will  take 
chances  in  overstocking  with  goods.  They  like  to  show  a  large  stock. 
They  do  not  understand  trade-getting  methods,  and  have  no  idea  of 
how  to  go  about  securing  the  trade  of  Kio  Hacha  and  the  Valle  Dupar 
district,  which  logically  belongs  to  them. 

With  the  exception  of  the  local  trade  in  native  foodstuffs  and 
ample  supplies  of^  cotton  dry  goods,  the  large  $80,000  stock  carried 
by  the  merchandise  department  of  the  United  Fruit  Co.  and  one 
small  stock  of  hardware  of  about  $4,000  are  the  only  stocks  of  goods 
in  Santa  Marta.     There  is  a  demand  for  hardware  and  piping. 

Local  merchants  are  carrying  good  stocks  of  cotton  print  goods 
and  dry  goods.  About  one-half  of  these  stocks  come  from  the  TJnited 
States,  being  imported  through  Barranquilla  by  the  large  Syrian 
houses.     Some  are  of  Barranquilla  manufacture. 

MANUFACTURING. 

There  are  no  local  industries  of  consequence.  Brick  and  tiling  are 
made  for  local  construction,  but  the  yards  are  small  and  are  worked 
at  long  intervals.  The  native  workmen  are  good  cabinetmakers, 
using  the  native  hardwoods  to  make  nearly  all  of  the  household  fur- 
niture used  locally.  Thev  work  very  slowly,  however.  Special  pieces 
of  furniture  are  imported  hj  a  few  of  the  wealthy  families,  dressing 
tables  with  la^'ge  mirrors  being  one  of  the  most  used. 

There  would  appear  to  be  a  good  opening  for  a  small  furniture 
factory  at  Santa  Marta  or  Barranquilla.  The  duty  on  imported 
furniture  is  30  and  40  cents  per  kilo  plus  2  per  cent  surtax.  Good 
native  hardwoods  can  be  obtained  in  the  foothills  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada near  the  Santa  Marta  Railway,  and  the  interior  offers  an  excel- 
lent market. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  United  Fruit  Co.  owns  a  total  of  80,000  acres  of  banana  land 
in  the  Santa  Marta  district,  of  which  it  has  16,000  acres  under  cul- 
tivation in  bananas.  There  are  300  private  growers  with  a  total 
acreage  of  about  14,000  in  bananas.  Banana  growing  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry,  and  little  planting  of  other  products  is  done,  with 
the  exception  of  corn,  "yucca,"  beans,  etc.,  for  local  consumption. 
Plantains  also  constitute  one  of  the  principal  articles  of  diet  of  the 
people  in  this  district. 

Potatoes  are  well  known  and  used  daily  by  all  classes.  These  are 
grown  by  the  Indians  in  the  foothill  district  of  the  Sierra  Nevada, 
and  some  are  brought  down  from  the  Medellin  district  for  sale  on 
the  coast.  All  vegetables  grow  extremely  well  with  irrigation,  fine 
lettuce,  onions,  carrots,  etc.,  being  seen  where  foreigners  have  planted 
gardens  and  cared  for  them.  These  latter  vegetables  are  not  grown 
or  used  by  the  natives. 

There  has  been  an  increase  in  the  acreage  of  com  planted  during 
the  past  two  years,  but  no  estimate  can  be  formed  of  the  amount, 
as  the  patches  are  small  and  scattered.  The  method  of  planting  is 
simply  to  clear  awav  the  brush  and  drop  the  seed  in  a  hole  made  in 
the  soil,  covering  it  by  means  of  the  foot.  The  crop  is  not  cultivated 
in  any  way  whatever  and  is  not  thinned.     After  planting,  the  only 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      191 

work  done  is  to  so  over  the  field  with  a  machete,  chopping  down  the 
larger  weeds.  This  is  done  once  or  twice  until  the  corn  is  high.  The 
ears  appear  to  be  very  good,  the  grain  being  large  and  soft. 

No  Deans  or  com  can  be  storea  in  this  region  for  any  length  of 
time  on  account  of  a  species  of  weevil  which  destroys  them  in  the 
bins.  With  properly  constructed  storage  and  treatment  with  carbon 
bisulphide  gas  (CS2),  ^rain  can  be  kept  indefinitely  anywhere  in  the 
Tropics,  but  nothing  is  known  in  Colombia  about  such  methods. 

Not  a  single  plow  is  used  by  the  natives  in  the  district.  The 
only  implements  employed  are  shovels  for  digging  the  irrigation 
ditches  of  the  banana  plantations,  the  ever-present  machetes,  and 
axes  for  clearing  purposes. 

These  machetes  (in  South  and  Central  America  every  district  has 
its  favorite  design,  size,  and  shape)  are  of  the  heavy,  long,  round- 
blade  type  with  horn  handles,  and  the  best-known  brand  is  made 
by  a  firm  in  the  United  States.  A  shorter  machete  of  the  same  form 
and  shape  is  used  for  cutting  bananas. 

The  axes  are  specially  made  for  the  native  hardwoods  and  have  a 
large  eye  to  take  the  home-made  handles,  which  are  straight.  The 
blade  is  long,  with  a  curved  edge,  which  has  a  heavy  bevel.  The 
favorite  brand  is  also  an  American  make. 

FISHING. 

A  species  of  buffalo  fish  is  very  plentiful  in  the  channels  of  the 
Magdalena  River  and  forms  a  staple  market  article,  both  fresh  and 
dry  salted.  A  small  quantity  of  these  dried  fish  have  been  exported 
to  Cuba  recently  from  Barranquilla,  but  no  statistics  on  this  trade 
are  available  in  Santa  Marta.  The  town  of  Cienaga  is  the  center 
of  the  fishing  industry  in  the  Santa  Marta  district.  From  here 
the  fish  are  shipped  to  Barranquilla  and  thence  into  the  interior. 
No  data  on  production  can  be  obtained.  The  fish  are  caught  from 
dugout  canoes  with  small  circular  casting  nets.  This  local  fishing 
industry  competes  with  imported  codfish,  which  it  has  practically 
supplanted  during  the  past  four  years. 

MINERAL  DEPOSITS. 

There  are  many  reports  and  rumors  of  rich  copper  deposits,  coal, 
and  also  alluvial  gold  in  the  Valle  de  Upar  district  near  the  towns  of 
Fonseca  and  Villanueva,  but  no  definite  information  can  be  obtained. 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  said  that  the  natives  do  not  under- 
stand mining  and  are  therefore  imable  to  give  an  accurate  description 
of  any  mineral  deposit  of  any  kind.  Few  American  or  other  foreign 
engineers  have  visited  the  Valle  de  Upar  region,  and  very  little  is  really 
known  of  its  mineral  wealth  or  formation.  This  region  is  accessible 
only  from  Rio  Hacha  by  mule  train,,  a  journey  of  five  days,  or  from 
Fundacion,  the  end  of  the  Santa  Marta  Railway,  in  about  the  same 
time.  It  was  recently  visited  by  an  American,  W.  E.  Dam6,  who 
spent  October,  November,  and  December  there.  Mr.  Dame  said  on 
his  return  to  Santa  Marta  that  the  copper  was  in  pocket  deposits, 
very  rich  ore,  and,  in  the  aggregate,  an  enormous  amount,  which  it 
would  well  pay  to  work.  He  also  reported  many  heavy  veins  of  coal, 
which  he  regarded  as  constituting  a  splendid  opportunity.  In  this 
connection  it  may  be  said  that  there  is  now  a  proposition  on  foot  in 
Bogota  to  secure  a  concession  to  build  a  railway  from  Bahia  Honda, 


192    coijOmbia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

on  the  Goajira  Peninsula,  east  of  Rio  Ilacha  and  south  through  the 
Valle  <le  Upar  region,  crossing  good  cattle  lands  and  tappnig  this 
mining  country,  the  idea  being  eventually  to  extend  this  road  to 
Bogota,  since  this  route  is  said  to  be  much  better  than  any  other. 
Bahia  Honda  is  reported  to  be  a  very  fine  deep-water  harbor.  The 
distance  from  Baiiia  Honda  to  Villanueva,  where  the  principal 
copper  and  coal  deposits  are,  is  approximately  250  miles,  over  level 
ground. 

From  such  information  as  could  be  obtained  at  Santa  Marta 
concerning  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Valle  de  Upar  region  it  would 
appear  that  this  district  would  justify  an  extensive  scientific  exam- 
ination by  experts,  who  should  come  prepared  to  stay  at  least  six 
months  and  carry  full  prospecting  and  assaying  equipment  with  them. 

Great  difficulty  would  probably  be  encounterecl  in  dealing  with 
native  land  or  mineral  claim  owners  for  the  purchase  or  contracting  of 
properties.  These  people  do  not  know  the  real  value  or  the  practical 
sitle  of  mining  in  any  form  and  are  therefore  inclined  to  ask  excessive 
prices  for  their  holdings. 

There  is  a  large  deposit  of  cement  material  35  miles  from  Santa 
Marta  at  a  distance  of  2  miles  from  the  railway.  The  analysis  shows : 
Silica,  70  per  cent;  iron  oxide,  3.95  per  cent;  aluminum  oxide,  20.5 
per  cent;  sulphur  trioxide,  0.345  per  cent;  alkali  earth,  0.098  per 
cent;  loss  on  ignition,  3.44  per  cent;  and  a  trace  of  magnesium  oxide. 
The  topography  from  the  deposit  to  the  railway  is  that  of  small 
ravines,  and  the  elevation  is  50  feet  above  the  railway.  The  hill  of 
deposit  is  500  feet  high  on  the  perpendicular.  It  can  easily  be 
worked  with  a  steam  shovel,  and  the  tonndge  of  material  is  almost 
unlimited.  A  concession  for  the  exclusive  cement-manufacturing 
right  for  the  country  could  be  secured  from  the  Government.  The 
deposit  is  owned  by  an  American.  Colombia  consumes  an  average 
of  $260,000  worth  of  cement  yearly,  and  the  use  of  this  material  m 
all  kinds  of  construction  worK  is  increasing.  The  present  average 
price  is  $5  per  barrel. 

FOREST  RESOURCES. 

Sufficient  good  timber  is  still  obtained  on  the  line  of  the  railway 
for  ties  and  for  bridge  and  culvert  construction.  When  used  for  ties 
the  native  hardwoods  last  eight  years,  whereas  imported  creosoted 
ties  last  only  an  average  of  tnree  years.  Hewn  and  squared  posts 
are  used  for  telegraph  and  telephone  wires.  Crossties  cost,  delivered 
at  line,  an  average  of  80  cents  apiece. 

The  western  slopes  of  the  lower  ranges  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
which  are  accessible  from  the  Santa  Marta  Railway  are  well  wooded, 
but  the  large  trees  of  commercial  value,  such  as  mahogany,  etc.,  are 
scattered  and  would  only  suffice  for  local  manufactures,  such  as 
furniture.  They  are  not  foimd  in  sufficient  numbers  to  be  of  any 
export  value. 

Aloes  are  found  in  the  Rio  Hacha  district,  and  there  is  one 
small  plantation  of  aloes  owned  by  Sefior  Moises  C.  Enriques.  The 
industry  is  in  its  infancy.  In  this  region  are  found  the  largest 
numbers  of  divi-divi  trees,  the  pods  of  which  are  exported  for  tanning 
material. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      193 
NEW  INDUSTRIES  AND  WATER-POWEK  DEVELOPMENT. 

A  resident  of  Santa  Marta  has  ordered  from  the  United  States  a 
small  fish-canning  plant  which  will  have  a  capacity  of  250  1-pound, 
500  2-pound,  and  250  3-pound  cans,  and  it  is  planned  to  can  in  oil  a 
small  local  species  of  sardine  for  local  consumption. 

A  sawmill  for  the  use  of  the  Vista  Nieve  coffee  plantation  has  been 
ordered  from  an  American  firm.  The  equipment  consists  of  a  54-inch 
circular  saw,  water-power  drive  40  by  18  inches,  24-inch  bed  planer, 
a  small  corn-meal  grinder,  belting,  and  accessories.  The  Vista  Nieve 
plantation  adjoins  the  coffee  property  of  the  Cincinnati  Coffee  Co., 
lour  hours  distant  from  Santa  Marta,  and  the  above-mentioned  equip- 
ment is  to  be  used  to  furnish  lumber  for  plantation  structures,  etc. 

A  hydroelectric  plant  is  to  be  installed  by  a  person  who  has  re- 
cently been  awarded  the  concession  to  use  the  "water  power  on  the 
Rio  Gaira,  4  miles  above  the  station  and  town  of  that  name  on  the 
Santa  Marta  Railway  and  7  miles  distant  from  Santa  Marta.  A 
335-foot  head  of  800  cubic  feet  per  minute  is  developed  here  at  the 
lowest  period  of  the  year  during  the  dry  season.  Approximately  450 
horsepower  will  be  produced,  to  be  used  for  the  operation  of  the 
Santa  Marta  ice  factory  and  for  electric  lighting  in  the  village  of 
La  Gaira,  and  the  plans  are  to  have  300  horsepower  available  for 
factory  purposes. 

SUPPLY.  QUAUTY.  AND  WAGES  OF  LABOR. 

The  lack  of  tonnage  during  the  war  for  the  movement  of  bananas 
caused  many  .banana  workers  to  emigrate  to  Cuba  to  work  in  the 
cane  fields  and  sugar  mills.  During  two  recent  years  3,000  men  have 
left  the  district.  It  would  at  this  time  be  impossible  to  secure  as 
many  as  500  men  to  labor  on  any  new  project.     Nearly  all  labor  is 

gerformed  by  a  system  of  piecework;  as,  for  example,  so  manj^ 
unches  of  bananas  handled  or  a  certain  area  of  land  cleared  consti- 
tutes a  day's  work.  The  men  are  good  at  machete  work  and  cutting 
and  handling  bananas,  but  do  not  like  heavy  labor,  such  as  track 
work  or  ditch  digging  for  irrigation. 

Although  there  are  many  Negroes  and  a  few  Indians  in  the  district 
and  most  of  the  people  show  a  heavy  infusion  of  Negro  blood,  they  all 
appear  to  be  affected  bv  the  tropical  climate  in  the  banana  zone  and 
subject  to  malaria  and  anemia  to  a  great  extent.  This  condition 
unfits  them  for  heavy  work,  and  they  are,  as  a  rule,  incapable  of  long- 
sustained  effort. 

The  United  Fruit  Co.  maintains  a  large  and  well-appointed  modern 
hospital  at  Santa  Marta,  where  climatic  conditions  are  much  better 
than  in  the  banana  zone.  To  this  hospital  are  brought  all  workmen 
having  diseases  of  any  kind,  for  medical  attention  and  cure.  The 
hospital  is  also  available  to  all  persons  of  the  region,  and  many  skillful 
operations  are  performed  here.  This  institution  is  rendering  a  much- 
needed  service  for  the  north  coast  of  Colombia,  and  its  value  is  incal- 
culable. 

BANKING. 

No  regular  banks  are  established  in  Santa  Marta,  but  there  are  two 
branch  agencies  of  Barranquilla  banks — the  Banco  Dugand  (Santa 
Marta  agent,  Miguel  A.  Zuniga)   and  the  Banco  Comercial  (repre- 

37558°— 21 13 


194    i'olombia:  a  commercial  and  inimtstrial  handbook, 

sen  ted  in  Santa  Marta  by  E.  C.  Fuentes).  Sefior  Miguel  A.  Zufiiga 
also  has  the  temporary  agency  in  Santa  Marta  for  the  Banco  Mercantil 
Americano  de  Colombia,  Barranquilla  branch,  and  maintains  one 
extra  clerk  who  attends  to  the  banking  work  in  his  store. 

POSSIBILITIES  OF  TRADE  DEVELOPMENT. 

It  would  seem  that,  by  an  eflFort,  the  merchants  of  Santa  Marta 
could  secure  and  develop  the  trade  of  the  rich  Vallo  de  Upar  region 
and  Rio  Hacha.  The  latter  has  no  harbor;  there  is  only  a  very 
shallow  open  roadstead,  where  small  schooners  have  to  lie  out  at  a 
great  distance  from  shore,  and  cargo  is  handled  in  dugout  canoes. 
At  the  present  time  Rio  Hacha  receives  most  of  its  supplies  from 
Curasao,  the  trade  being  carried  on  by  small  schooners  owned  in  Cura- 
sao, which  return  home  with  divi-divi  and  hides  from  Rio  Hacha. 
The  distance  from  Santa  Marta  is  90  miles  by  sea,  and  the  trip  is 
slow  and  difficult  in  the  small  schooners  (by  reason  of  the  strong 
northeast  trade  winds),  the  voyage  taking  from  five  to  six  days. 
There  is  a  customhouse  at  Rio  Hacha,  and  merchandise  from  Curapao 
is  distributed  into  the  interior  of  the  Goajira  Peninsula  and  the  Valle 
de  Upar  region.  The  distance  from  Rio  Hacha  to  Valle  de  Upar  is 
approximately  300  kilometers,  or  186  miles,  and  all  goods  are  trans- 
ported by  pack  mule. 

The  route  from  Santa  Marta  via  the  railway,  as  far  as  Fundacion, 
and  thence  by  pack  mule  to  Valle  de  Upar,  is  more  practical  than  that 
from  Rio  Hacha.  The  distance  is  less  great  and  the  road  passes 
through  a  more  inhabited  region,  where  there  are  coffee  and  cacao 
plantations  and  cattle  ranches.  For  this  reason  it  would  seem  that 
the  merchants  of  wSanta  Marta  should  endeavor  to  develop  trade  by 
this  route  and,  also,  should  run  small  auxiliary-powered  scnooners  to 
Rio  Hacha. 

The  towns  at  present  being  supplied  through  Rio  Hacha  with 
goods  from  Curasao  are:  Moreno  and  Valencia,  population  1,500  each; 
Soldado,  population  1,000;  Fonseca,  3,500;  San  Juan,  5,500  (includ- 
ing 20  ranchos);  Villa  Nueva,  3,500;  Valle  de  Upar,  7,000.  The 
Province  of  Padilla  has  a  total  population,  including  all  ranches  and 
small  villages,  of  28,000.  However,  the  Santa  Marta  merchants  do 
not  seem  to  have  any  idea  of  how  to  go  about  developing  this  trade 
and  would  have  to  be  given  assistance.  The  large  coffee  plantations 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada  region  carry  stocks  of  goods  worth  $5,000  to 
$8,000,  and  would  also  buy  in  Santa  Marta  if  it  were  possible  to  do  so. 
The  trade  with  the  Goajira  region  and  the  Valle  de  Upar  district  can 
*be  conservatively  estimated  as  amounting  to  $400,000  yearly. 

The  United  Fruit  Co.  is  in  a  very  good  position  to  establish  a  large 
wholesale  house  at  Santa  Marta  and  supply  the  Valle  de  Upar  region, 
and  this  would  be  one  of  the  best  and  most  logical  ways  oi  increasing 
American  trade  in  this  district.  Goods  for  transshipment  into  this 
region  must  be  packed  for  mule  transport — weight  limit  135  pounds 
per  package.  Duty  is  assessed  on  gross  weight  so  that  packing  should 
be  as  light  as  possible  consistent  with  safety. 

The  nine  principal  business  houses  of  Santa  Marta  have  a  capital 
running  from  $5,000  to  $95,000  each,  and  representing  a  total  of 
$205,000.  Their  annual  sales  in  1917-18  were  $227,000,  and  stocks 
on  hand  are  valued  at  $111,000.  Analyzing  these  figures,  it  will  be 
seen  that  very  little  business  is  being  done,  compared  with  the  amount 


ECONOMIC   CHAKACTEKISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      195 

of  capital  represented,  and  that  the  annual  turnover  is  very  slow;  in 
fact,  complete  stocks  are  cleared  but  once  a  year,  even  in  normal 
times.     This  latter  feature  is  one  of  the  arguments  for  longer  ci^edits. 

The  major  portion  of  the  stocks  now  on  hand  (at  least  80  per  cent 
of  the  total)  consists  of  dry  goods,  principally  cotton-print  goods, 
which  are  moving  very  slowly. 

There  is  a  small  local  demand — about  two  gross  annually— for  a 
fair  grade  of  ready-made  negligee  shirts,  which  sell  readily. 

Santa  Marta,  during  1917,  imported  $395,000  worth  of  general 
merchandise,  almost  all  from  the  United  States. 

HARBOR  AND  DOCKS. 

The  Santa  Marta  Harbor  lies  on  the  west  shore  and  is  open  toward 
the  west-southwest,  well  protected  by  the  hills  surrounding  the  town 
and  bay.  iVnchorage  is  good.  The  depth  of  water  in  the  bay  varies 
between  50  and  200  feet.  There  is  a  minimum  of  16  feet  at  low  water 
at  the  face  of  the  wharves,  which  lie  at  the  extreme  north  end  of  the 
bay.  The  bottom  shelves  rapidly  seaward  to  over  27  feet  at  the  keel 
line  of  vessels  lying  alongside.  The  wharves  are  owned  and  operated 
by  the  Santa  Marta  Railway  Co.  (Ltd.).  General  cargo  is  dis- 
charged at  the  rate  of  about  15  tons  per  hatch  per  hour  and  loaded 
at  the  rate  of  12  to  20  tons  per  hatch  per  hour,  depending  on  the 
nature  of  the  goods  and  the  facility  of  stowage.  Coffee  is  loaded  at 
the  rate  of  250  bags  per  hatch  per  hour.  The  freight  is  handled  on 
men's  shoulders  and  by  hand  truck.  Heavy  packages  are  moved  on 
rollers  by  means  of  tackle  and  locomotive  power  when  necessary. 
The  piers  arc  strong  enough  to  hold  the  maximum  weight  that  can 
be  moved,  which  is  ordinarily  not  over  10  tons.  There  are  no  ordi- 
nary facilities  for  handling  pieces  of  freight  over  9  by  8  by  28  feet 
in  dimension.  There  is  ample  trackage  for  switching,  with  a  capacity 
of  235  18-ton  cars.  A  £4,000  fire-insurance  policy  for  account  of 
the  Santa  Marta  Railway  Co.  protects  cargo  while  on  docks  or  piers. 

The  charges  on  inward  and  outward  cargo  are  $0.20  per  ton 
wharfage  and  $0.60  per  ton  from  ship  s  side  to  customhouse  or,  in  the 
case  of  export  cargo,  from  station  yard  to  ship's  side.  There  are  no 
lighterage  charges,  as  lighters  are  not  used.  The  ships  use  their  own 
springs,  mooring  lines,  slings,  etc.  The  wharf  charge  for  cattle  is 
$0.30  per  head.  The  charges  for  berthing  are:  Whanage,  $30;  boat 
service,  $7 ;  and  use  of  buoy,  $3,  for  steamers  of  any  tonnage.  Import 
cargo  is  transferred  from  wharves  to  customhouse  in  sealed  cars  and 
there  unloaded  for  examination.  AR  of  these  operations  are  per- 
formed by  employees  of  the  railway  company.  In  case  of  loss  or 
damage  from  the  time  the  cargo  is  received  on  dock  until  it  is  de- 
livered at  the  customhouse,  the  railway  company  is  liable. 

No  stevedoring  is  undertaken  by  contract.  Work  on  board  ship 
is  done  by  the  ship's  crew  or  by  shore  labor,  at  the  request  of  the 
ship's  officer,  in  which  case  the  labor  is  furnished  by  the  railway 
company.  If  labor  is  recjuested  from  shore,  the  average  number  of 
men  employed  is  13 — 10  in  the  hold,  2  winch  men,  and  1  deck  tender. 
Normally  there  is  sufficient  labor  to  work  as  many  hatches  as  can  be 
brought  alongside  the  wharves.  Chiefly  West  Indian  labor  is  em- 
ployed, and  the  regular  wages  are  15  cents  per  hour  for  foremen  and 
10  cents  for  laborers.     The  foreman  receives  25  cents  and  the  laborers 


196    coix)mbia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

15  cents  per  hour  for  overtime.     Night  work  is  all  counted  as  overtime, 
as  are  also  Sundays  and  holidays. 

The  only  steamship  line  touching  at  Santa  Marta  is  that  of  the 
United  Fruit  Co.,  whose  vessels  load  bananas  from  the  company's 
plantations  in  the  district.  The  service  is  not  regular,  but  ptussage 
and  freight  may  be  booked  from  Boston,  New  York,  and  Pliiladel- 
phia,  and  also  Baltimore,  according  to  the  run  of  the  particular 
steamer  bringing  up  fruit  from  Santa  Marta.  In  December,  1918, 
14  steamers  sailmg  from  the  United  States  called  at  Santa  Marta, 
12  of  which  came  direct  and  2  by  way  of  Cartagena  and  Puerto 
Colombia. 

RAILWAY  SERVICE  AND  PROPOSED  EXTENSIONS. 

The  total  trackage  of  the  Santa  Marta  Railway  is  97.57  miles' 
of  which  59.65  is  main  line.  There  are  30  small  branch  lines,  all 
in  banana  plantations.  The  rolling  stock  consists  of  20  English- 
made  locomotives  of  12  to  33  tons  each,  17  passenger,  3  baggage, 
and  213  freight  cars.  The  roadbed  is  of  3-foot  gauge,  rock  ballasted, 
heavily  ditched,  and  well  kept.  There  is  one  heavy  earth  cut  of  600 
feet  and  17  all-steel  bridges  in  excellent  condition. 

Fully  85  per  cent  of  the  earnings  of  the  railway  arc  derived  from 
the  banana  traffic.  There  is  not  enough  local  freight  and  passenger 
business  otherwise  to  pay  operating  expenses.  Banana  handling  is 
costly  on  account  of  the  perishable  quality  of  the  fruit  and  the  neces- 
sity of  careful  and  rapid  transport  to  steamers.  The  trains  are  made 
up  to  run  out  to  the  plantations  empty  when  the  fruit  is  cut,  making 
the  freight  a  one-way  haul.  The  line  can  handle  57,000  bunches  of 
bananas  in  24  hours'  working  time,  using  4  large  and  8  small  locomo- 
tives. This  time  is  the  elapsed  time  from  the  issue  of  the  order  for 
cutting  until  the  fruit  is  cut,  brought  to  the  sidings,  loaded  on  board 
cars,  and  delivered  to  the  steamer.  The  capacity  could  be  increased 
to  160,000  bunches  in  24  hours. 

In  1905  the  Santa  Marta  Railway  Co.  secured  a  promise  that  the 
Government  would  not  levv  a  tax  on  the  production  of  bananas  for 
20  years.  This  has  allowea  the  United  Fruit  Co.  to  enlarge  its  hold- 
ings in  banana  land  and  develop  the  plantations  in  this  district.  The 
railway  company  has  agreed  to  buila  a  branch  loading  line  into  any 
of  the  banana  plantations,  not  to  exceed  10  kilometers  in  depth  from 
the  main  line,  if  the  amount  of  fruit  justifies  this  extension. 

The  terminus  of  the  line  is  at  Fundacion,  96  kilometers  (60  miles) 
from  Santa  Marta,  and  the  road  was  originally  planned  to  reach  the 
Magdalena  River.  The  present  policy  of  the  company  is  to  discour- 
age the  building  to  the  magdalena  liiver  until  tne  development  of 
the  country  would  warrant  such  an  extension  in  this  direction.  The 
officials  think  it  better  to  extend  the  road  48  kilometers  (30  miles) 
toward  Iriguani,  throughout  which  district  there  is  water  for  the 
irrigation  of  bananas,  timber  is  found  in  abundance,  and  there  is  ex- 
cellent cattle  land — the  district  offering  better  opportunities  of  de- 
velopment than  that  toward  the  Rio  Magdalena.  In  this  connection, 
the  plan  is  to  extend  the  line  eventually  to  Yalle  de  Upar,  tapping 
the  rich  copper  and  coal  deposits  found  there. 

The  coast  route  from  Santa  Marta  to  Rio  Hacha  is  very  rou^h  and 
broken,  and  there  is  not  enough  traffic  to  warrant  construction  in  this 
direction.     Such  a  line  woulabe  very  costly. 


ECONOMIC   CHAEACTEEISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      197 

BARRANQUILLA  DISTRICT,  DEPARTMENT  OF  ATLANTICO,  AND 
MAGDALENA  RIVER. 

LOCATION  OF  TERRITORY. 

The  commercial  district  of  Barranquilla  is  not  a  well-defined 
region  and  is  not  in  any  sense  limited  to  Atlantico,  the  Department 
in  which  the  city  itself  is  located.  Barranquilla  is  Colombia's  chief 
port  of  entry  and  the  distributing  point  for  a  large  section  of  the 
mterior  served  by  the  Magdalena  Kiver.  Its  commercial  territory 
includes  the   Departments  of  Santander   and   Norte    de  Santander 


Fig.  9.— Map  of  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena  regions. 

and  the  entire  Santa  Marta  district  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Magda- 
lena; it  is  the  wholesale  center  for  portions  of  the  Departments  of 
Bolivar  and  Antioc[uia  on  the  western  side  of  the  Magdalena  and  at 
times  it  even  receives  orders  from  the  distant  Cauca  Valley  in  the 
Department  of  El  Valle. 

Barranquilla  is  located  on  the  Magdalena  River  about  10  miles 
from  its  mouth  and  about  17^  miles  from  the  seaport  of  Puerto 
Colombia,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the  Barranquilla-Puerto  Co- 
lombia Railway.  It  has  65,000  people,  less  than  10  per  cent  of  whom 
are  of  pure  white  blood. 


198     (COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  Department  of  Atlantico  has  an  area  of  a  little  more  than  1 ,000 
square  miles  and  a  population  of  about  11 5,000.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
east  by  the  Magdaiena,  on  the  south  and  west  by  the  Department  of 
Bolivar,  and  for  some  50  miles  on  the  west  and  north  by  the  Carib- 
bean Sea.  The  Magdaiena  Valley  contains  considerable  areas  of 
level,  alluvial  land  suitable  for  agriculture,  but  the  remainder  of 
the  Department  is  composed  of  low,  broken  hills  interspersed  with 
small  depressions.  This  region  is  arid  and  unproductive  during  the 
dry  season,  and  the  valleys  are  more  or  less  swampy  during  tlie 
ramy  season. 

CLIMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 

Atlantico  has  two  seasons,  a  dry  season  from  October  until  May 
and  a  rainy  season  the  other  five  months.  These  seasons  are  ex- 
ceedingly Variable;  occasionally  rains  are  so  heavy  that  crops  and 
cattle  suffer,  but  more  often  there  is  an  insufficient  supply  of  water. 
The  annual  rainfall  averages  about  21  inches,  thougn  it  is  often 
lower,  and  in  exceptional  years  it  is  as  much  as  42  inches. 

The  Department  is  only  a  few  degrees  north  of  the  Equator  and 
therefore  has  a  tropical  climate.  During  the  rainy  season  the  north- 
east trade  winds  moderate  the  temperature  along  the  coast  and  as 
far  inland  as  Barranquilla.  During  these  months  the  average  mean 
temperature  at  Barranquilla  does  not  exceed  86°  F.,  with  a  high 
average  of  96°  and  a  low  average  slightly  less  than  the  mean. 
During  the  rainy  season  it  is  even  hotter  than  in  the  dry  season. 

POPULATION  AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

The  business  element  of  Barranquilla  is  composed  of  Colombians, 
Syrians,  Italians,  Germans,  and  a  few  Englishmen  and  Americans. 
Most  of  the  traders  are  Syrians,  but  recently  the  proportion  of  Co- 
lombians has  been  increased  by  an  influx  from  the  mterior,  prin- 
cipally from  Antioquia.  There  are  less  than  half  a  dozen  Amencans 
among  the  city's  permanent  residents. 

In  Barranquilla  the  lower  classes,  mainly  Negroes,  live  in  low 
adobe  or  brick  building,  scantily  furnished  and  with  few  con- 
veniences; outside  the  city  they  live  in  tiny,  palm-thatched  huts. 
As  bananas,  plantains,  and  the  universal  yucca,  which  are  the  prin- 
cipal food  staples,  are  cheap  and  plentiful,  it  requires  little  effort 
to  exist.  The  people  are  more  or  less  affected  by  tropical  anemia, 
and  work  is  slow  and  inefficient. 

Potatoes  are  the  only  fresh  vegetables  obtainable  in  Barranguilla. 
Fruits  are  abundant  but  not  ^ood  except  bananas.  Butter  is  not 
made  in  this  region,  and  only  tmned  butter  can  be  purchased.  Milk 
is  scarce  and  poor. 

Malaria  and  other  tropical  diseases  are  prevalent.  The  greatest 
precautions  should  be  observed  against  the  pests  of  mosnuitoes  and 
flies,  and  drinking  water  should  be  boiled.  The  unhealtnful  condi- 
tion which  would  normally  result  from  the  lack  of  sewage  and  drain- 
age systems  in  Barranquilla  is  partially  counteracted  by  the  oxida- 
tion which  the  air  receives  from  the  clouds  of  lime  dust  that  are 
whipped  up  by  the  trade  winds  from  the  lime  formation  on  which 
the  city  is  built.  This  lime  dust,  however,  is  said  to  be  one  cause  of 
the  prevalence  of  tuberculosis. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      199 


SCHOOLS— LABOR  CONDITIONS. 


The  Department  of  Atlantico  has  61  pubHc  primary  schools.  Bar- 
ranquilla  has  12  primary  schools,  a  Government  normal  school,  3 

f)arochial  schools,  and  3  so-called  "colegios."  One  of  these  ''co- 
egios"  is  a  Presbyterian  missionary  school,  where  elementary  courses 
in  domestic  science  and  English  are  taught.  This  school  is  endeavor- 
ing to  raise  the  standards  of  living  of  the  lower  classes. 

Labor  is  plentiful  in  Barranquifla  but  not  in  the  cotton  district  in 
the  interior  of  Atlantico.  The  transfer  of  freight  from  the  railway 
sheds,  the  customhouse,  and  the  river  steamers  is  the  principal  occu- 
pation of  the  lower  classes  in  Barrancjuilla.  The  catching  and  drying 
of  fish  for  the  markets  of  the  interior  is  a  thriving  industry  of  the 
district.  Barranquilla  has  about  3,000  factory  employees,  mostly 
women  and  girls,  who  work  in  the  cotton  mills.  Tnese  factory 
employees  are  paid  on  a  piecework  basis  and  earn  an  average  wage 
of  30  to  80  cents  per  day. 

Barranquilla  was  affected  by  the  general  strike  which  took  place 
along  the  Atlantic  coast  in  January,  1918.  This  strike  was  caused 
partly  by  political  disturbances,  partly  by  the  increase  in  the  cost 
of  living,  and  partly  by  the  lack  of  employment  resulting  from  the 
shutting  off  of  ocean  traffic.  Wages  at  that  time  averaged  $0.80  per 
day  for  cargo  handling,  cartage,  and  similar  occupations,  and  were 
increased  to  an  average  of  $1.20  per  day.  In  July,  1919,  a  second 
period  of  agitation  was  initiated  by  the  cartmen.  They  received  an 
advance  in  wages  of  $0.10  per  day.  The  dock  and  cargo  workers  of 
Barranquilla  seem  to  be  well  organized,  and  take  concerted  action 
for  dhe  adjustment  of  labor  differences. 

AGRICULTURE  AND  LIVE  STOCK. 

Cotton  is  the  most  important  agricultural  product  of  the  Magda- 
lena  Valley  region  near  Barranqunla.  The  production  in  1917  was 
estimated  at  2,200,000  pounds,  and  it  is  thought  that  production  has 
increased  since  then.  Prices  offered  by  the  Barranquilla  and  Medellin 
mills  are  higher  than  corresponding  prices  in  the  United  States,  but 
even  so,  the  mills  find  it  impossible  to  obtain  a  sufficient  supply  of 
raw  cotton  and  to  obtain  cotton  that  is  clean  enough  for  ginning. 
Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  modern  methods  of 
cultivation  and  to  establish  large  plantations  but  with  little  success. 
Most  of  the  cotton  is  grown  on  small  farms  by  individual  owners  or 
renters.  Seed  is  imported  from  Mississippi.  The  fiber  of  this  cotton 
resembles  that  of  sea-island,  often  measures  from  H  to  If  inches  in 
length,  and  is  almost  too  fine  for  use  in  the  local  mills. 

Sufficient  corn,  beans,  yucca,  and  other  native  foodstuffs  are  grown 
in  the  Barranquilla  district  to  supply  the  local  demand,  with  the 
exception  of  plantains,  which  are  imported  from  the  banana  district 
south  of  Santa  Marta  and  Cienaga. 

In  1918,  ''malva"  fiber, (a  substitute  for  Indian  jute;  was  planted 
near  Barranquilla,  and  a  bag-making  plant  was  purchased  in  the  city 
itself.  A  satisfactory  yield  of  the  fiber  was  obtained,  but  the  impos- 
sibility of  securing  sufficient  labor  to  pick  the  crop  and  the  difficulty 
of  marketing  a  trial  shipment  to  the  United  States  discouraged  the 
promoters  and  the  whole  project  was  abandoned. 

Enough  cattle  are  raised  along  the  river  to  suppiy  the  population 
of  the  Department  and  a  few  head  are  sent  up  the  river  to  Antioquia. 


200     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
COAL  AND  PETROLEUM   RESOURCES. 

In  1919,  preliminary  plans  were  made  to  work  the  beds  of  bitu- 
minous coal  which  lie  along  the  bank  of  the  San  Jorge  a  short  dis- 
tance above  the  head  of  navigation.  The  seams  in  these  deposits 
vary  in  width  from  a  few  inches  to  12  feet;  the  vein  which  it  is 

Elanned  to  work  has  a  width  of  10  feet  and  a  dip  of  14°  from  the 
orizontal.  Surface  soil  only  has  to  be  removed  to  uncover  the  coal 
which  lies  at  a  depth  of  1  to  2  yards  under  the  topsoil.  A  preliminary 
analysis  of  the  coal  was  made  and  some  work  done  to  clear  the  river 
for  navigation.  An  initial  shipment  of  3,000  tons  to  Barranquilla  has 
been  contracted,  and  it  is  planned  to  float  the  coal  down  to  Barran- 
quilla in  100-ton  barges.  The  local  consumption  of  coal  at  Barran- 
quilla, including  the  needs  of  the  Barranquilla-Puerto  Colombia  and 
Santa  Marta  Railways,  is  estimated  at  approximately  1,000  tons  per 
month. 

An  American  company  has  been  drilling  for  petroleum  near 
Puerto  Colombia,  and  although  it  has  not  yet  found  oil  in  paying 
quantities,  indications  are  encouraging.  There  are  also  indications 
of  oil  to  the  southwest  in  the  direction  of  Cartagena,  but  drilling 
operations  farther  to  the  west  near  the  Rio  Sinu  several  years  ago 
by  an  American  company  failed  to  tap  any  large  body  of  petroleum. 

MANUFACTURING— BANKING. 

The  making  of  cotton  yarn  and  of  cotton  cloth  are  the  chief  manu- 
facturing industries  of  Barranquilla  and  promise  to  become  increas- 
ingly important  in  the  near  future.  The  textile  mills  have  e  ..Tied 
large  profits  during  the  war,  and  this  prosperity  has  resulted  in  an 
increase  in  the  capitalization  of  some  of  the  companies,  in  new  equip- 
ment, and  in  the  establishment  of  one  large,  new  yarn  mill.  The 
industry  is  protected  by  a  high  tariff  on  imported  goods,  and  prices 
are  determined  bv  the  nigh  cost  of  the  imported  articles. 

The  older  mills  are  ec[uipped  with  English  machinery,  and  the 
newer  mills  w^th  American.  The  light  weight  of  the  American 
machinery  and  the  automatic  features  which  make  less  skilled  labor 
necessary  for  its  operation  have  made  it  popular,  and  several  large 
machines  were  ordered  during  1919. 

Among  the  other  industrial  plants  of  Barranquilla  are  small  estab- 
lishments making  soap,  shoes,  hats,  carbonated  water,  cigarettes, 
and  trunks.  There  are  also  breweries,  a  flour  mill,  a  glass  factory,  a 
match  factory,  a  nail  factory,  sawmills,  tanneries,  a  tile  factory,  and 
a  chocolate  factory. 

In  1918  machinery  was  imported  and  preparations  were  made  for 
the  establishment  oi  an  oil-crushing  plant  at  Barranquilla.  Corozo 
nuts  from  the  Magdalena  Valley  were  to  be  used  and  the  oil  shipped 
to  France. 

Barranquilla  has  five  banks,  two  ColomjDian,  one  French  with  Co- 
lombian affiliations,  and  two  American.  The  establishment  of  a 
Canadian  bank  is  under  consideration.  One  of  the  native  banks  does 
a  straight  banking  business,  while  the  other  adds  to  this  an  export 
and  import  business. 

The  general  business  prosperity  of  the  country  which  resulted  from 
the  increased  volume  and  value  of  the  coffee  exports  for  1919  was 
reflected  by  an  increased  volume  of  business  and  increased  earnings 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NDSTE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.     201 

for  the  Barranquilla  banks.  The  native  banks  have  been  accus- 
tomed to  charge  12  per  cent  per  annum  for  prime  commercial  paper, 
but  the  establishment  of  the  American  banksnas  abeady  had  the  effect 
of  lowering  these  rates  by  2  and  in  exceptional  cases  even  3  per  cent. 

PUBUC  UTILITIES. 

The  city  of  Barranquilla  is  anxious  to  own  its  public-utihty  service, 
but  lacks  sufTicient  funds  for  its  purchase  and  improvement.  In  the 
meantime',  little  encouragement  is  given  to  private  companies  to  un- 
dertake much-needed  improvements  in  the  water-supply  system,  the 
telephone  system,  the  street-railway  and  light  systems,  and  similar 
enterprises. 

The  water  supply  is  insufficient  and  the  system  antiquated.  Water 
is  taken  from  the  river  by  a  small  pumping  plant,  filtered  to  some  ex- 
tent, and  distributed  through  small  mains.  The  plant  is  owned  by  a 
local  company,  part  of  whose  stock  is  controlled  by  the  municipal 
government.  Paving  is  bad.  Here  and  there  the  streets  in  the  center 
of  the  town  arc  paved  with  cobblestones,  but  those  on  the  outskirts  of 
the  main  business  sections  are  filled  with  dirt.  The  problem  of  street 
paving  in  Barranquilla  is  an  important  one,  and  according  to  esti- 
mates will  involve  an  expense  of  about  $3,000,000.  Plans  for  the 
financing  of  this  project  were  recently  discussed  at  a  municipal 
meeting  attended  by  the  principal  Barranquilla  merchants,  ana  it 
is  possible  that  active  steps  will  be  taken  in  the  near  future  to  get 
this  work  under  way. 

The  telephone  system  is  operated  by  an  American  company  which 
also  owns  a  light  plant  at  Santa  Marta.  Its  concession  expired  about 
three  years  ago  and  has  never  been  renewed,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
it  has  promised  to  install  new  and  modem  equipment  and  to  extend 
its  service  upon  renewal  of  the  concession.  In  1918  the  municipal 
council  attempted  to  organize  a  new  telephone  company  in  which  it 
was  to  retain  a  controlling  interest,  but  this  attempt  failed  because  of 
the  opposition  of  local  business  men.  The  electric  light  plant  is  op- 
erated by  a  private  company,  maintains  good  service,  and  is  capable 
of  considerable  extension.  There  are  several  good  moving  electric 
signs,  the  only  ones  in  Colombia  outside  of  Bogota. 

The  present  street-railway  service  is  limited  to  a  small  system  of 
mule  cars  operated  by  a  local  company  under  a  concession  that 
expires  in  1920.  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  gain  control  of 
the  reorganized  company  the  municipal  government  was  forced  to 
accede  to  the  demands  of  the  company  and  ^rant  it  a  new  40-year 
franchise  based  upon  the  extension  and  electrification  of  the  present 
system.  This  concession  had  not  been  approved  b^  the  governor  at 
the  end  of  1919,  but  an  ultimate  approval  is  anticipated.  The  new 
system  will  include  10  kilometers  of  track  and  16  electric  cars,  with 
additional  equipment  to  be  provided  as  the  needs  of  the  city  make 
extensions  necessary.  A  new  steam  generating  plant  is  to  be  pro- 
vided also. 

NEW  SUBURB  FOR  BARRANQUILLA— HOTEL  ACCOMMODATIONS. 

In  1919  an  American  company  purchased  a  tract  of  about  660 
acres  near  the  northwestern  edge  of  Barranquilla  for  the  establish- 
ment of  a  new  residential  suburb.     The  sum  of  65,000  Colombian 


202     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

dollars  (I  dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  currency)  was  paid  for  the 
tract,  a  landscape  engineer  was  brought  down  from  the  United 
States  to  lay  out  the  addition,  and  it  was  planned  to  spend  from 
25,000  to  50,000  dollars  the  first  year  in  improvements.  Lots  were 
to  be  sold  and  houses  built  and  sold  on  the  easy-payment  plan 
when  necessary.     Such  a  plan  is  a  distinct  innovation  in  Colombia. 

A  number  of  splendid  Duildings  are  now  nearing  completion  in 
Barranquilla.  Among  these  are  the  new  BarranquilJa  customhouse, 
the  new  building  of  the  Banco  Dugand,  the  Barranquilla  Club,  the 
A.  B.  C.  Club,  and  a  number  of  residences. 

Hotel  service  in  Barranquilla  is  not  of  the  best  because  of  the  im- 
possibility of  training  the  native  servants  of  the  coastal  region  to 
keep  things  clean  or  to  prepare  food  in  an  appetizing  manner.  There 
are  a  number  of  hotels,  but  only  two  first-class  ones,  and  even  those 
lack  sufficient  modern  improvements. 

HARBOR  FACIUTIES  AT  PUERTO  COLOMBU. 

The  harbor  at  Puerto  Colombia  is  a  large  shallow  bay  with  a 
wide  entrance,  easily  approached  by  steamers  from  the  open  sea. 
It  is  protected  on  the  sea  side  by  low-lying  sandy  islands,  but  these 
islands  do  not  break  the  force  of  the  winds  from  the  sea,  and  there 
is  little  protection  for  shipping  during  stormy  weather.  The  Magda- 
lena  flows  into  the  ocean  through  a  swamp  about  15  miles  to  the 
east  of  the  bay.  The  shallowness  of  the  bay  has  made  it  necessary 
to  build  the  pier  a  mile  in  length  in  order  that  vessels  may  have 
sufficient  water  to  come  alongside  to  load  and  discharge  cargo,  and 
the  enormous  quantities  of  silt  being  constantly  deposited  in  the 
bay  by  the  Magdalena  will  eventually  make  a  further  extension  nec- 
essary. At  present  the  water  is  5^  fathoms  deep  at  the  end  of  the 
pier,  and  the  anchorage  depth  off  the  pier  varies  from  5  to  8  fathoms. 
The  maximum  fall  of  the  tide  is  18  inches.^ 

The  pier  is  owned  by  the  Barranquilla  Railway  &  Pier  Co.,  an 
English  company,  which  also  owns  the  railway  from  Puerto  Colom- 
bia to  Barranquilla.  It  has  four  tracks  at  the  sea  end  of  the  pier 
for  placing  cars  to  receive  and  discharge  freight  to  and  from  steamers, 
and^a  single-track  line  to  the  shore.  Merchandise  is  not  stored  on 
the  pier  or  in  warehouses  or  freight  sheds  at  Puerto  Colombia,  but 
moves  directly  to  the  customhouse  at  Barranquilla. 

The  town  of  Puerto  Colombia  has  a  population  of  about  2,500, 
most  of  whom  are  Negroes  engaged  in  dock  and  cargo  work,  Its 
buildings  are  for  the  most  part  wood,  roofed  with  corrugated  iron. 
Drinking  water  has  to  be  brought  from  the  river  at  Barranquilla. 

The  United  Fruit  Co.  maintains  a  weekly  frei^t  and  passenger 
service  between  this  port  and  United  States  ports,  W.  R.  Grace  &  Co. 
a  monthly  freight  and  passenger  service,  and  the  Caribbean  Shipping 
Co.  a  10-day  freight  service.  The  Compaflia  Transatlantica  de 
Barcelona  maintains  a  montlily  freight  and  passenger  service  to 
Barcelona  via  Venezuela  and  the  West  Indies. 

BARRANQUILLA-PUERTO  COLOMBIA  RAILWAY. 

The  Barranquilla-Puerto  Colombia  Railway  is  the  connecting  link 
between  Barranquilla  and  its  ocean  port,  Puerto  Colombia.  It  can 
handle  approximately  50,000  packages  or  3,250  metric  tons  of  im- 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     203 

port  and  export  freight  in  two  days  of  24  hours  each.  Coffee,  the 
principal  article  of  export  freight,  is  used  as  a  basis  for  comparison 
when  figuring  all  other  goods  handled ;  a  package  is  65  kilos  or  143 
pounds  gross  weight.  The  company  can  ship  15,000  pieces  of 
freight  for  export  from  a  Barranquilla  warehouse  to  the  pier  at 
Puerto  Colombia  and  load  it  on  steamer  in  one  day  of  24  hours. 
The  average  loading  rate  is  800  sacks  of  coffee  per  hour  from  cars 
on  pier  to  hold  of  vessel  lying  alongside. 

The  railway's  equipment  includes  15  locomotives  of  20  and  45  tons 
capacity,  220  box  cars  whose  capacities  range  from  8  to  20  tons,  and 
19  passenger  cars.  Both  freight  and  passenger  cars  are  of  wood 
and  in  need  of  repair.  Locomotives  are  worn,  and  the  roadbed  is 
not  in  the  best  of  condition.     The  track  has  a  42-inch  gauge.     Im- 

Eorted  coal  was  .used  for  fuel  before  the  war.     Since  that  time  wood 
as  been  substituted,  and  in  1919  an  effort  was  made  to  procure 
native  coal. 

The  Barranc[uilla  Railway  &  Pier  Co.  has  a  capital  of  £200,000 
and  a  bonded  indebtedness  of  £100,000.  The  restrictions  on  exports 
and  imports  during  the  war  caused  a  decrease  in  revenue  during 
1918,  but  in  May,  1919,  business  began  to  increase  rapidly,  and  the 
returns  for  1919  will  undoubtedly  show  an  increased  tonnage. 
During  1917-18  the  freight  carried  amounted  to  86,500  tons.  '  Net 
profits  were  100,326  Colombian  dollars,  and  working  expenses  were 
65  per  cent  of  the  gross  earnings.  A  5  per  cent  dividend  was 
declared. 

MAGDALENA  RTVER  EOUTE  TO  THE  INTERIOR. 

THREE   SECTIONS   OF   MAGDALEXA   RIVER. 

The  transportation  facilities  available  for  the  shipping  of  goods 
from  Barranquilla  into  the  interior  are  practically  limited  to  the 
Magdalena,  its  tributaries,  and  the  railways  built  from  various  Mag- 
dalena  ports  into  the  interior. 

The  Magdalena  rises  in  the  Andes,  in  the  Department  of  Huila,  and 
flows  north  down  the  great  valley  which  lies  between  the  eastern  and 
central  ranges  of  the  Andes,  passing  through  more  than  three-fourths 
of  the  central  part  of  Colombia.  Its  navigable  length,  about  930 
miles,  consists  of  three  distinct  sections:  The  Huila  section,  which 
extends  from  Neiva  to  Girardot,  the  Upper  River  from  Girardot  to 
Beltran,  and  the  Lower  River  from  La  Dorada  to  Barranquilla. 

The  Huila  section  passes  through  a  mountainous  country  and  has 
a  well-defined  channel.  In  the  dry  season  it  has  scarcely  enough 
water  to  float  a  canoe  in  many  places.  In  the  Upper  River,  a  stretch 
of  some  95  miles,  the  volume  of  water  is  greater,  but  there  are  many 
obstructions  to  navigation  and  the  section  is  often  not  navigable 
during  the  dry  season  even  for  the  80-ton  steamers  of  shallow  draft 
operated  between  Girardot  and  Beltran.  These  boats  never  draw 
more  than  3^  feet  of  water  when  loaded  to  capacity.  The  Upper  and 
Lower  River  sections  are  separated  by  a  series  of  impassable  rapids, 
which  are  bridged  by  the  short  Dorada  Extension  Railway.  The 
current  in  the  Lower  River,  a  stretch  of  approximately  615  miles, 
is  less  swift  than  in  the  upper  sections,  the  valley  is  wider,  and  the 
channel  constantly  shifts.  From  La  Dorada  to  Puerto  Berrio,  a 
distance  of  109  miles,  the  river  is  stiU  dangerous.     Below  Puerto 


204    (M)lombia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

Berrio  it  becomes  steadily  better,  but  not  good  until  the  mouths  of 
the  Cauca  and  the  San  Jorge  are  passed — the  first  214  miles  above 
Barranquilla,  the  second  174  miles.  It  is  only  below  Calamar,  67 
miles  from  Barranquilla,  that  the  river  is  practically  free  from  sand 
bare,  mud  banks,  snags,  and  similar  obstructions  to  navigation  and 
can  be  navigated  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  with  comparative  safety, 
steamers  even  running  at  night  during  the  dry  season.  The  deep 
channel  has  about  35  or  40  feet  of  water  at  Barranquilla. 

TRIBUtARIES   OF"   MAGDALENA    RIVER. 

The  Cauca,  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Magdalena,  has  its  source 
in  the  central  Andes  near  Popayan  and  flows  north  between  the 
central  and  western  ranges.  It  is  divided  into  two  navigable  sec- 
tions, the  first  from  Call  to  Cartago  and  tlie  second  from  the  mining 
town  of  Caceres  to  the  Magdalena,  a  distance  of  170  miles.  From  the 
mouth  of  its  tributary,  the  River  Nechi,  to  the  Magdalena,  a  distance 
of  74  miles,  the  Cauca  is  navigable  for  steamers  of  120  tons  burden 
and  3  feet  draft  during  the  entire  year.  This  service  is  important 
because  it  affords  means  of  transportation  to  the  rich  placer-mining 
region  of  the  Nechi  and  San  Jorge  Rivers. 

The  San  Jorge  flows  almost  parallel  to  the  Cauca  between  the 
Cauca  and  the  western  Cordillera.  It  is  not  nearly  so  long  a  river 
but  it  is  as  wide  and  as  deep  in  its  lower  part,  and  during  tne  rainy 
season  is  navigable  for  small  steamers  up  to  Ayapel,  112  miles  from 
its  mouth.     Its  course  is  impeded,  however,  by  many  obstructions. 

The  Magdalena  has  three  tributaries  on  the  east  which  are  navi- 
gable during  the  season  of  high  water.  The  Rio  Cesar  flows  south 
through  the  Department  of  Magdalena  and  joins  the  Magdalena 
River  at  the  Lake  of  Zapatosa  approaching  the  town  of  Banco.  It  is 
navigable  for  small  steamers  as  far  as  the  town  of  El  Paso,  96  miles 
from  Banco.  The  Rio  Lebrija  joins  the  Magdalena  at  Bodega  Cen- 
tral just  above  the  town  of  Gamarra,  and  during  the  rainy  season  is 
navigable  for  small  steamers  up  as  far  as  La  Ceiba,  70  miles  from 
Bodega  Central.  It  serves  the  Bucaramanga  commercial  district  in 
the  Department  of  Santander.  The  Rio  Sogamoso  flows  into  the 
Magdalena  a  short  distance  south  of  Puerto  Wilches  and  is  navigable 
for  22  miles  during  the  rainy  season.  This  river  also  serves  the 
Bucaramanga  district. 

Mention  should  also  be  made  of  the  Opon  and  the  Carare  Rivers, 
which  are  navigable  for  canoes,  and  of  the  Rio  Colorado,  which  flows 
into  the  Magdalena  just  above  the  Sogamoso.  An  American  oil  com- 
pany has  wells  located  35  miles  up  this  river  and  ships  all  the  neces- 
sary supplies  and  equipment  up  tlie  river  in  small  gasoline  launches 
and  dugout  canoes  equipped  with  motors.  The  company  has  spent 
considerable  money  in  clearing  out  the  river  and  is  now  building  a 
wagon  road  from  the  river  at  Barranca  Bermeja  to  the  field. 

Small  45-ton  steamers  run  through  the  narrow  channels  in  the 
swamps  of  the  Magdalena  from  Barranquilla  to  Cienaga,  a  distance 
of  56  miles.  Cienaga  is  about  14  miles  from  Santa  Aiarta  and  is 
connected  with  it  by  the  Santa  Marta  Railway.  There  is  usually 
so  little  water  in  the  channels  that  boats  of  more  than  2  feet  draft 
can  not  be  used.     The  trip  takes  from  8  to  10  hours. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS,      205 


DREDGING   AND   CANALIZATION    PROJECTS. 


From  time  to  time  the  National  Government  has  made  determined 
efforts  to  improve  the  conditions  of  navigation  on  the  Magdalena 
and  it  now  owns  a  considerable  amount  of  fairly  new  equipment  for 
this  work,  including  3  dredgers,  2  pile  drivers,  3  steamers  of  130,  106, 
and  136  tons,  respectively,  2  mud  scows,  and  2  cargo  lighters.  Plans 
have  been  discussed  repeatedly  for  the  canalization  of  the  Dique,  a 
natural  waterway  connecting  the  Magdalena  with  the  sea  near  Carta- 
gena, and  for  the  dredging  of  the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  so  that 
ocean  steamers  could  proceed  directly  to  Barranquilla.  An  attempt 
was  made  recently  to  clean  out  the  channel  connecting  the  San  Jorge 
and  Cauca  Rivers,  but  the  project  was  abandoned  as  being  too  costly. 

The  Dique  extends  from  Calamar  on  the  Magdalena  to  Barbacoas 
on  the  sea,  a  distance  of  96  miles.  A  series  of  swamps  extend  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Dique  at  Barbacoas  along  the  coast  to  Cartagena, 
18.6  miles.  This  entrance  to  the  Magdalena  was  formerly  used  by 
large  boats,  but  it  has  been  allowed  to  fall  into  disuse  and  is  now 
choked  with  a  heavy  growth  of  water  plants.  In  1919  a  concession 
for  cleaning  it  was  granted  by  the  National  Government,  some  pre- 
liminary surveys  of  the  canalization  work  necessary  to  make  it  navi- 
gable were  made,  and  further  work  was  planned.  If  these  plans 
should  be  carried  out  and  the  Dique  made  navigable  for  river  steam- 
ers, it  is  predicted  that  a  large  part  of  the  river  tonnage  would  be 
diverted  from  Barranquilla  to  Cartagena. 

The  Magdalena  is  40  to  60  feet  deep  at  Barranquilla,  but  only 
about  6  feet  deep  over  the  bar  at  its  mouth,  about  8  miles  below 
the  city.  Three  separate  preliminary  surveys  of  the  mouth  have 
been  made,  and  in  1919  a  company  of  local  merchants  and  bankers 
was  organized  at  Barranquilla  to  promote  the  project  to  dredge  the 
mouth  and  construct  jetties  and  wharves  at  Barranquilla.  No  actual 
work  has  been  done,  however,  and  the  whole  project  is  considered 
impracticable  by  many  engineers  and  well-informed  people  because  of 
the  cost  and  the  engineering  difficulties. 

According  to  a  statement  in  El  Tiempo,  a  Bogota  newspaper,  in 
December,  1920,  a  contract  has  been  entered  into  between  the 
Colombian  Government  and  the  representative  of  the  German  firm 
of  Julius  Berber,  of  Berlin,  for  the  study  of  plans  for  dredging  the 
Magdalena  River.  The  study  proposed  is  to  be  carried  out  as  far 
as  Neiva,  the  necessary  plans  made,  and  an  estimate  furnished.  The 
company  has  a  period  ot  eight  months,  counted  from  the  date  of  the 
definite  approval  of  the  contract,  to  begin  the  work  connected  with 
the  study  and  30  months  more  to  turn  in  the  plans,  estimates,  and 
reports  to  the  satisfaction  of  experts  appointed  by  the  Government. 
When  the  present  contract  is  complied  with,  the  company  is  to  have 
an  option,  circumstances  being  equal,  for  the  execution  of  the  works 
planned. 

FUNDS    FOR    RIVER    WORK. 

All  river  work  is  directed  by  a  Government  Canalization  Board 
aided  by  an  advisory  committee  composed  of  members  of  the  various 
steamship  companies.  For  the  present,  work  is  being  confined  to  the 
removal  of  rocks  and  sunken  tree  trunks  from  the  channel  of  the 
river  and  to  local  dock-repair  work,  and  the  accumulating  funds  are 


206     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

being  held  until  conditions  become  more  favorable  and  there  is  suffi- 
cient money  to  effect  some  permanent  improvements. 

Funds  for  river  work  are  supplied  by  various  fluvial  taxes.  In 
1916  the  proceeds  of  these  taxes  amounted  to  349,000  Colombian  dol- 
lars and  m  1917  to  318,000  dollars.  Each  year  20  per  cent  of  the 
proceeds  are  alio  ted  to  work  on  the  Upper  Kiver  ana  10  per  cent  to 
the  Cartagena  Dique. 

A  tax  of  4  Colombian  dollars  per  metric  ton  is  charged  on  all  im- 
port freight,  4  dollars  per  metric  ton  on  all  domestic  freight  not  in- 
tended for  export,  and  1.60  dollars  per  metric  ton  on  all  freight  in- 
tended for  export  with  the  exception  of  certain  articles  exempted 
by  special  laws  and  certain  domestic  products  which  have  been  pro- 
tected by  special  contract  with  the  Government.  These  exempted 
products  include  tagua  or  vegetable  ivorv,  lumber  for  construction 
purposes,  dyes,  fibers  for  weavmg  and  coraage,  vegetable  oils,  domes- 
tic foodstuns,  supplies  for  public  service,  and  cotton  for  domestic  use. 

Each  steamer  of  100  tons  or  more  pays  a  registration  fee  of  20 
Colombian  dollars  for  each  100  tons  of  register;  each  steamer  of 
less  than  100  tons,  4  dollars  for  every  25  tons  or  fraction  thereof; 
each  steam  or  gasoline  launch,  a  fee  of  5  dollars;  and  each  lighter 
or  scow  of  over  1  ton,  a  fee  of  1  Colombian  dollar.  In  addition  to 
the  registration  fee,  an  annual  license  fee  of  50  cents  for  5  tons  or 
over  and  25  cents  for  less  than  5  tons  is  collected. 

MAGDALENA   STEAMER   SERVICE. 

The  following  table  lists  the  companies  which  operate  steamers 
on  the  Magdalena,  the  number  of  boats  owned  by  each  company,  and 
their  total  tonnage : 


steamship  companies. 


Upper 
River. 


Lower 
River. 


Total 
boats. 


Total 
tonnage. 


Colombian  Railway  &  Navigation  Co.  (Ltd.) 

Cla.  Antioquefia  de  Transportes 

F.  Perez  Rosa 

Manuel  Betanpourt 

Martin  Vasquez 

Empresa  "Palmar"  (Pineda  Lopez  y  Cla.,  managers). 


5,589 
1,675 
977 
370 
204 
300 


In  addition  to  the  boats  listed  in  the  above  table,  the  Santa  Marta 
Wharf  Co.  operates  one  80-ton  steamer  between  Barranquilla  and 
Cienaga,  and  there  are  nine  steamers  of  less  than  100  tons  capacity 
that  handle  local  freight  on  the  Lower  River. 

The  Magdalena  steamers  are  stcrn-wheelers,  built  with  rounded 
"spoon"  bows  to  prevent  their  plowing  too  deeply  into  mud  and  sand 
banks.  Their  hulls  are  of  steel,  built  in  cellular  sections,  to  prevent 
flooding  of  the  entire  hold  if  one  compartment  is  ripped  open  on  the 
bottom  or  sides.  Cargo,  boilers,  and  engines  are  all  carried  on  the 
main  deck.  Large  steamers  customarily  tow  steel  lighters,  some 
of  which  carry  a  car^o  of  200  tons. 

Wood  is  the  usual  fuel,  but  it  is  expensive  and  occupies  valuable 
cargo  space,  and  the  companies  have  therefore  become  interested  in 
the  possibility^  of  using  oil  from  the  wells  on  the  Rio  Colorado. 

Boat  building  has  been  retarded  during  the  war.  In  1913,  55  craft 
of  all  classes,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  more  than  2,300,  were  built; 
in  1916,  only  10  boats,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  a  little  over  400. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL.  DISTRICTS.      207 


PASSENGER   AND   FREIGHT  TRAFFIC. 


Some  idea  of  the  amount  of  traffic  on  the  Magdalena  may  be  ob- 
tained from  the  official  figures  for  1916,  the  only  year  for  which  such 
statistics  are  available.  During  that  year,  18,300  river  passengers  ar- 
rived at  Barranquilla  and  19,100  departed  from  Barrancjuilla.  The 
quantity  of  freight  handled  during  the  year  at  various  river  ports  is 
snown  by  the  following  table : 


Ports. 


Freight 
received. 


Freight 

dis- 
patched. 


Barranquilla 

Calamar  (entrance  to  Dique) 

Magangue 

Bodega  Central  (loading  point  for  Rio  Lebrija) 

Puerto  Berrio  (loading  point  for  MedeUin) 

La  Dorada  (rail  point  at  head  of  Lower  River) 

Girardot  (rail  point  for  Bogota,  Ibague,  and  entrance  to  Upper  River) 
Puriflcacion  (on  Upper  River,  freight  intended  mostly  for  Hiula) 


Metric 

tons. 

80,600 

15,400 

3,300 

3,300 

14,100 

29,000 

24,300 

1,500 


Metric 

tons. 

53,400 

15,900 

32 

3,000 

16,000 

37,100 

32,400 

1,400 


Coffee  constitutes  about  85  per  cent  of  the  export  freight,  and 
cacao  and  hides  rank  next  in  importance.  Import  freight  consists 
largely  of  general  merchandise.  The  movement  of  cattle  forms  an 
important  part  of  the  river  traffic,  it  being  estimated  that  no  less 
than  100,000  head  of  cattle  are  handled  annually.  During  1919 
exports  of  coffee  were  estimated  to  be  at  least  25  per  cent  in  excess 
of  those  for  any  previous  year,  and  it  therefore  seems  safe  to  calcu- 
late that  export  freight  was  at  least  25  per  cent  greater  in  1919  than 
in  1916.  Judging  from  the  heavy  buying  in  the  United  States,  the 
volume  of  import  freight  was  nearly  twice  as  great. 


FREIGHT    RATES. 


A  flat  rate  of  21.65  Colombian  dollars  per  metric  ton  is  charged 
for  shipping  coffee  from  Girardot  to  either  Puerto  Colombia  or 
Cartagena  and  delivering  it  alongside  steamer  at  pier.  This  rate 
docs  not  include  the  fluvial  tax  of  1.60  dollars.  Rate  schedules  allow 
a  discount  to  be  made  to  shippers  of  1,000  or  more  sacks  of  coffee, 
and  in  the  past  large  shippers  nave  secured  big  discounts  by  means  of 
prearranged  contracts  with  the  steamship  agents.  In  1918  preferen- 
tial freight  contracts  were  prohibited  by  law. 

Freight  rates  on  coffee  for  export  are  lower  than  the  rates  on  any 
other  commodity.  Other  rates  vary  greatly  and  are  different  in  the 
Upper  and  Lower  Rivers  for  any  given  article.  Rates  for  down- 
river freight  are  25  per  cent  lower  than  those  for  up-river  freight. 
The  minimum  rate  between  any  points  is  1  Colombian  dollar,  and  no 
shipment  for  less  than  3  dollars  is  accepted.  A  loading  and  un- 
loading charge  of  80  cents  per  ton  is  made  irrespective  of  the  class 
of  cargo,  with  the  exception  of  heavy  lifts,  for  which  an  extra  charge 
is  made.     Storage  is  at  the  rate  of  2  dollars  per  ton  per  month. 

Jewels  and  other  especially  valuable  commodities  pay  at  the  rate 
of  f  per  cent  of  their  value  either  way  above  Puerto  Berrio,  and  ^ 
per  cent  below  that  point.  A  200  per  cent  excess  is  charged  on  dyna- 
mite and  explosives,  100  per  cent  excess  on  inflammables  (except 


208      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

matches  and  petroleum),  and  50  per  cent  excess  on  alcohol,  caustic 
soda,  etc. 

Excess  weight  charges  are  figured  on  a  basi^  of  5  Colombian  dol- 
lars on  all  packages  weighing  more  than  500  kilos  and  measuring  over 
1  cubic  meter.  Weights  in  excess  of  2,000  kilos  or  of  more  than  4 
cubic  meters  in  size  are  charged  10  dollars  for  each  unit  of  excess 
measurement  or  fraction  thereof.  Excess  weights  of  5,000  kilos  or 
over  take  an  excess  charge  of  15  dollars. 

A  discount  of  10  per  cent  is  allowed  on  shipments  of  native  raw 
cotton,  wool,  fibers,  coal,  lumber  or  wood,  starch,  butter,  wheat,  horn, 
mats,  coffee,  cacao,  imported  bottles,  cement,  sacks,  print  paper,  and 
machinery  and  tools  for  agriculture,  mining,  and  industries.  Ma- 
terials and  equipment  for  schools  and  religious  organizations  are 
allowed  a  discount  of  30  per  cent.  A  discount  of  50  per  cent  is 
allowed  on  domestic  rice,  onions,  potatoes,  "panela"  (brown  sugar), 
fish,  bananas  and  plantains,  corn,  vegetables,  coconuts  and  other 
fruits,  tagua,  coal,  asphalt,  mineral  products  in  bulk,  seeds,  and  nat- 
ural or  chemical  fertilizers  for  export. 

VOLUME  OF  IMPORT  BUSINESS  AT  BARRANQUILLA. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  total  amount  of  imports  actually 
handled  by  the  merchants  of  Barranquilla,  because  statistics  show 
only  the  grand  total  of  imports  through  the  customhouse  and  from 
this  total  must  be  deducted  the  merchandise  intended  for  such  in- 
terior trade  centers  as  Bogota,  Medellin,  and  Manizales.  Having 
made  these  deductions  and  calculated  the  population  of  the  com- 
mercial district  of  Barranquilla,  it  may  be  estimated  that  approxi- 
mately a  fourth  of  the  merchandise  imported  through  Barranquilla 
is  for  either  Barranquilla  merchants  or  tneir  clients  in  the  interior. 

Merchandise  imported  through  Barranquilla  in  1917  amounted  to 
39,683  metric  tons,  valued  at  13,621,206  Colombian  dollars,  and  in 
1918  to  22,302  tons,  valued  at  13,133,840  dollars.  About  70  per  cent  of 
the  imports  consists  of  cheap  cotton  goods,  the  remainder  being 
largely  machinery,  hardware,  builders'  hardware,  iron  sheets,  rods 
and  wire,  paper,  cement,  resin,  paints  and  oils,  caustic  soda,  medicines, 
automobiles,  office  fixtures  and  appliances,  and  wines  and  liquors. 

Most  of  the  Barranquilla  merchants  do  a  general  importing  busi- 
ness and  handle  a  wide  variety  of  merchandise,  with  cotton  textiles 
as  their  principal  line.  There  are  at  least  half  a  dozen  of  these  houses 
that  have  a  capital  of  more  than  $300,000  and  as  many  more  with 
a  capital  of  over  $200,000.  The  only  specialty  houses  are  a  few  that 
handle  hardware  and  allied  lines.  Each  importer  has  his  own  group 
of  clients  in  the  interior  whom  he  supplies  with  stocks  of  general 
merchandise  and  from  whom  he  buys  coffee,  hides,  cacao,  tobacco, 
and  other  products  for  export.  His  clients'  accounts  generally  run 
from  one  crop  season  to  the  next — the  coffee  harvest  season.  May  and 
June,  beinw  the  buying  and  settlement  period. 

Before  the  war,  the  Barranquilla  wholesalers  imported  most  of 
their  merchandise  from  Europe.  Hardware,  paper,  and  chemicals 
came  from  Germany;  textile  machinery  from  England,  and  other 
machinery  from  Germany;  textiles  from  England;  fancy  dry  goods 
from  France;  jewelry  from  France   and  Switzerland;  liquors   and 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      209 

oils  from  Spain.     Most  of  the  native  produce — coffee,  for  example — 
was  sold  in  New  York. 

During  the  war  Barranquilla  importers  were  forced  to  buy  from 
the  United  States,  and,  when  once  introduced,  American  merchandise 
became  popular  in  the  Barranquilla  territory. 

CARTAGENA  AND  COMMERCUL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION  AND  TOPOGRAPHY. 

Cartagena,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Bolivar,  is  a  seaport 
on  the  northwest  coast  of  Colombia,  63  miles  southwest  of  Puerto 
Colombia,  and  has  a  population  of  51,382  according  to  the  census 
of  1918.  At  one  time  it  was  the  principal  seaport  of  Spanish  Amer- 
ica, but  it  has  suffered  a  decline  commercially.  Barranquilla  sur- 
passes Cartagena  in  commercial  importance,  handling  four  times  the 
amount  of  business  in  imports  and  exports. 

The  Bay  of  Cartagena  is  9  miles  long  by  4  miles  wide.  For- 
merly there  were  two  entrances,  the  larger  and  more  practical  en- 
trance, called  ''Boca  Grande,"  immediately  south  of  the  town, 
being  closed  by  the  Spaniards  in  early  colonial  times  as  a  defense 
measure  against  pirates  and  hostile  fleets.  "Boca  Chica,"  as  the 
southern  entrance  to  the  harbor  is  called,  is  about  8  miles  distant 
from  the  town  of  Cartagena.  This  channel  is  so  narrow  and  tor- 
tuous that  the  services  of  an  experienced  pilot  are  necessary.  En- 
trance and  departure  from  the  harbor  take  place  only  during  the 
hours  of  dayli^nt. 

To  the  southeast  the  bay  extends  into  shallow  water  or  swamps 
more  or  less  congested  with  marine  growth,  through  which  there  are 
many  narrow  channels;  these  are  used  by  the  canoes  of  the  Negroes 
who  traffic  with  the  many  small  villages  bordering  the  mainland. 

Navigation  is  carried  on  by  means  of  small  sailing  canoes  and 
large  dugouts,  some  of  which  carry  two  masts,  schooner  rigged,  and 
even  possess  cabins  aft.  These  craft  bring  in  the  products  of  the 
country  to  the  public  market  of  Cartagena.  Hundreds  of  these 
canoes  are  seen  on  market  days.  The  coast  to  the  north  and  north- 
east is  composed  of  irregular  hills,  which  extend  as  far  north  as 
Puerto  Colombia  and  as  lar  inland  as  the  Lago  de  Guajaro.  These 
hills  are  covered  with  a  sparse  second  growth  of  woody  tropical 
vegetation,  and  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year  present  a  sterile 
and  uninviting  prospect  to  the  traveler.  The  Lago  de  Guajaro  is 
surrounded  by  a  large  level  plain,  subject  to  overflow  during  the 
rainy  season.  The  soil  is  poor  and  unsuited  for  agriculture.  To  the 
south  and  southwest  are  low  hills  rising  from  the  swamps,  the  for- 
mation being  decomposed  shale  with  outcroppings  of  limestone  and 
sandstone. 

The  good  agricultural  region  begins  some  25  miles  south  of  Car- 
tagena. Here  the  country  is  a  level  plain,  which  extends  for  a  dis- 
tance of  60  miles  until  the  hills  north  and  west  of  the  Cauca  River 
are  encountered.  The  "Dique,"  or  natural  canal,  from  Cartagena 
to  Calamar  on  the  Magdalena  River,  may  be  termed  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  good  agricultural  lands.  Just  south  of  this  "  Dique  " 
are  found  the  sugar  plantations  of  Sincerin,  where  cane  is  grown  with- 
out irrigation  all  the  year  round,  and  many  fertile  areas  devoted  to 

37558°— 21 14 


210      COLOMBIA:    A   COMMERCIAL   AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

cattle  raising  and  planted  in  Para  grass.  Much  of  this  fertile  land  is 
subject  to  overflow  in  the  rainy  season.  There  are  no  roads  through- 
out this  agricultural  region,  all  transportation  being  carried  on  by 
means  of  pack  mules. 

CLIMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 

The  climate  of  the  entire  district  of  Bolivar  is  very  tropical,  the 
temperature  ranging  from  80  to  94°  F.,  with  high  humidity,  but  tem- 
pered by  the  trade  winds  on  the  coast  during  the  winter  months. 

Throughout  the  coast  region  there  are  two  seasons,  the  wet,  or 
rainy  season,  from  April  to  October,  and  the  dry,  or  winter  season, 
from  November  to  March.  The  average  total  rainfall  is  approxi- 
mately 44  inches  on  the  coast  in  the  Cartagena  district.  This  rain- 
fall is  not  always  to  be  depended  upon,  varying  greatly,  with  long 
periods  of  drought,  during  which  crops  suffer.  Usually  the  spring 
equinox  brings  about  two  weeks  of  light  rains,  which  are  depended 
upon  to  mature  the  so-called  winter  crops. 

The  Caribbean  coast  of  Colombia  is  extremely  unhealthful;  tropi- 
cal diseases  of  all  sorts  are  prevalent  and  there  is  much  malaria,  tropi- 
cal anemia,  dysentery,  etc.     Yellow  fever  is  a  constant  menace. 

POPULATION  AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

The  characteristics  of  the  people  inhabiting  the  coast  region  of 
Colombia  differ  greatly  and  have  a  decided  effect  upon  living  con- 
ditions and  the  demand  for  goods.  Probably  less  than  10  per  cent 
of  the  inhabitants  are  of  pure  white  blood.  These  are  descendants 
of  the  Spanish  colonists  who  settled  in  Colombia  during  the  three 
centuries  following  the  conquest  of  the  country.  They  form  the  gov- 
erning class  and,  on  the  whole,  are  well  educated;  many  of  tnem 
have  traveled  extensively.  The  major  portion  of  the  population  of 
the  coast  region,  however,  is  composed  of  Negro  descendants  of  the 
slaves  imported  during  colonial  days  for  work  on  the  defenses  of 
Cartagena,  in  the  mines,  and  on  the  plantations.  In  the  Rio  Atrato 
and  Kio  Condoto  regions,  on  the  west  coast,  the  Negroes  present 
almost  a  pure  type  and  are  estimated  at  150,000  in  number.  The 
Negroes  have  become  mixed,  to  some  slight  extent,  with  the  native 
Indians.  The  "mestizos,"  representing  a  mixture  of  Spaniard  and 
Indian,  constitute  the  numerically  small  middle  class  of  the  coast 
region.  These  latter  are  the  artisans  of  the  country.  In  the  interior 
of  the  country,  however,  the  mestizos  represent  the  greatest  percentage 
of  the  population.  This  is  a  significant  fact  and  implies  a  persistence 
of  type  tnat  may  largely  determine  the  cliaracter  of  the  Colombian 
people,  unless  the  slowly  increasing  white  element  is  reinforced  by 
immigration.  This  group,  as  a  whole,  offers  an  extensive  market  for 
the  cneaper  grades  of  merchandise  now  being  imported  into  the 
country. 

Living  conditions  vary  greatly.  Most  of  the  people  live  in  a  very 
primitive  manner,  even  in  the  towns.  Little  attention  is  paid  to 
sanitary  measures.  The  wealthier  people  are  building  homes  in  which 
are  found  every  modern  convenience  and  sanitary  appliance.  On  the 
outskirts  of  Cartagena  are  two  residence  districts,  "  La  Manga"  on  the 
south  and  "El  Cabrero"  along  the  ocean  beach  to  the  north,  both 
constructed  within  the  past  15  years  outside  of  the  ancient  walls  of 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF    NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      211 

the  city.  Many  fine  residences  are  seen,  combining  modern  artistic 
architecture  with  comfort  in  the  tropical  cUmate.  In  the  smaller 
towns  the  poor  people  live  generally  in  palm-thatched  huts  with  dirt 
walls,  the  hut  consisting  of  one  room  and  a  lean-to  for  cooking.  The 
example  set  by  the  Canal  Zone  authorities  has  had  its  effect  in  stimu- 
lating the  desire  on  the  part  of  the  more  educated  class  for  better  sani- 
tary arrangements  and  health  measures,  and  it  may  be  predicted  that, 
in  the  near  future,  some  real  work  in  this  connection  may  be  carried 
out  by  the  Colombian  Government. 

EDUCATION. 

It  is  estimated  that  70  per  cent  of  the  people  in  the  coast  region  are 
illiterate.  Attendance  in  public  schools  is  free  but  not  obligatory. 
In  1912  the  Department  of  Bolivar  had  208  public  schools  and  34 
private  schools,  with  a  total  enrollment  of  12,800  pupils,  or  2.77  per 
cent  of  the  population.  Out  of  total  appropriations  for  all  purposes 
in  1912  of  548,728  Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar=$0.9733  United  States 
currency),  the  Department  of  Bolivar  had  a  school  budget  of  191,218 
dollars,  or  34.84  per  cent  of  the  total  expenditure  for  the  year. 

The  institution  of  higher  learning  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar  is 
the  departmental  university  at  Cartagena,  the  largest  in  the  country, 
with  about  250  students  enrolled  in  the  courses  of  law,  medicine,  and 
philosophy. 

CHARACTERISTICS  AND  TRADE  RELATIONS  OF  BUSINESS  MEN. 

The  business  man  in  Cartagena  (as  elsewhere  in  Colombia)  repre- 
sents a  very  high  type.  He  is  well  informed  on  all  subjects  and 
very  much  interested  in  international  affairs,  showing  keen  judgment 
and.  knowledge.  Modern  offices,  containing  cabinet  files,  adding 
machines,  typewriters,  etc.,  present  an  atmosphere  of  activity  and 
business  very  pleasing  to  the  visitor.  Great  changes  are  taking 
place  in  all  lines  of  business.  Show  windows  are  Deing  installed 
where  goods  may  be  attractively  displayed,  sample  rooms  are  fitted 
out  witn  an  eye  to  the  A'alues  of  display  of  goods,  and  there  is,  conse- 
quently, an  increasing  demand  (formerly  supplied  by  France)  for 
snow-window  fittings,  show  cases,  display  counters,  etc. 

Prior  to  th^  war,  the  influence  was  mainly  European,  because  of  the 
Colombian's  travel  in  European  countries  and  his  business  interests 
there;  this  tendency  is  manifested  in  his  liking  for  the  French  styles 
of  architecture,  furniture,  clothing,  etc.  Of  course,  the  compatibility 
of  the  Latin  races  was  also  a  factor  in  this  preference.  Although  at 
that  time  the  merchant  of  Cartagena  looked  upon  New  York  as  the 
first  market  for  his  exports  of  coffee,  chicle,  ipecac,  hides,  gold,  and 
platinum,  he  purchased  the  bulk  of  his  merchandise  in  Europe — 
chemicals,  hardware,  dyes,  from  Germany;  textiles  from  England. 
During  the  war  New  York  became  the  center  of  Colombia's  export 
and  import  business,  as  well  as  the  financial  center,  furnishing  about 
90  per  cent  of  the  imports  of  Colombia  and  taking  93  per  cent  of  its 
exports.  Thus  there  resulted  a  balance  of  trade  of  about  $13,000,000 
in  favor  of  Colombian  exporters. 

When  the  Cartagena  merchant  was  forced  to  buy  in  the  United 
States,  he  found,  notwithstanding  many  difficulties  and  misunder- 
standings, that  such  an  arrangement  was  a  very  good  one,  chiefly 


212      COLOMBIA:   A   t;OMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAI.   HANDBOOK. 

because  he  had  his  money  in  New  York,  but  also  because  of  the 
proximity  and  the  resulting  rapid  delivery  of  goods.  What  the 
importer  especially  desires  to-day  is  that  more  attention  be  paid  to 
his  needs  by  the  American  manufacturer  and  exporter. 

Colombian  firms  established  in  New  York,  which  act  as  export 
commission  merchants  and  also  purchase  and  export  goods  for  tlieir 
own  account,  constitute  a  real  benefit  to  American  trade.  Through 
them  accurate  credit  information  is  obtained;  American  manufac- 
turers and  jobbers  receive  needed  information  about  Colombian  con- 
ditions; and  (these  firms  being  on  the  ground  in  the  United  States) 
better  selections  are  made  of  new  lines  for  introduction  and  sale  in 
the  Colombian  market. 

INCREASING  DEMAND  FOR  NEW  GOODS. 

A  very  modern  tendency  is  noted  in  the  increasing  demand  for  ar- 
ticles of  manufacture  not  previously  used  in  the  country.  Better 
cloths,  better  quality  and  variety  are  now  being  purchased.  The 
people  like  American  styles,  and  are  interested  in  new  things.  Wages 
ana  purchasing  power  are  increasing.  The  demand  for  new  goods  is 
being  felt  in  the  following  lines:  Textiles,  household  utensils,  furni- 
ture, show  cases,  office  ecjuipment,  window  display  equipment,  under- 
wear and  hosiery,  lighting  fixtures,  baggage  articles,  leather  goods, 
toilet  articles,  medicines,  and  heavy  chemicals  for  manufacturing 
purposes. 

BUSINESS  METHODS— HANDLING  OF  IMPORTS  AND  EXPORTS  BY  SYRIANS. 

Practically  all  commercial  business  is  handled  in  Cartagena  by 
six  large  houses  which  are  importing  wholesalers  and  exporters  of  the 
products  of  the  region,  buying  export  materials  for  their  own  account 
m  the  interior  through  well-established  agencies  and  branches.  Sev- 
eral of  these  large  firms  are  also  private  bankers,  and  interested  in 
local  manufacturing  and  agricultural  enterprises  to  a  very  consid- 
erable extent. 

Forming  a  powerful  factor  in  merchandising  in  Cartagena  are  the 
Syrian  merchants,  who  have  competed  directly  with  the  old-estab- 
lished Colombian  houses.  By  means  of  intense  industry,  economy, 
and  their  own  peculiar  system  of  agencies,  branches,  and  traders  in 
the  interior,  more  especially  in  the  Rio  Atrato  platinum  region,  they 
have  been  able  to  win  a  good  half  of  the  entire  business  of  this  com- 
mercial territory.  There  is  not  a  town  in  the  interior  of  250  people 
where  a  Syrian  merchant  can  not  be  found.  These  men  are  seen  on 
all  trails  with  their  packs  of  goods  for  trade  and  barter.  They  are 
found  in  the  almost  inaccessible  jungles  of  the  Rio  Atrato,  where  they 
trade  for  platinum,  gold,  tagua,  balata,  chicle,  etc.,  with  the  Indians 
and  Negroes,  traveling  by  canoe  when  they  can  and  at  times  packing 
their  goods  with  men  over  short  ranges  of  hills  from  one  small  stream 
to  another. 

The  Syrian  merchants  always  specialize  in  cotton-print  goods,  in 
which  line  they  are  experts.  The  larger  houses  are  also  importers  of 
general  merchandise  in  demand  in  the  country.  In  spite  of  the  com- 
petition with  Barranquilla  importers,  the  Syrian  merchants  of  Car- 
tagena have  been  able,  througn  branches  established  in  the  interior, 
to  maintain  a  fair  wholesale  trade  with  towns  up  the  Magdalena 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     213 

River,  and  as  far  east  as  Ocana  and  Bucaj*amanga  in  Santander. 
These  people  have  evolved  a  system  of  long  credits  especially  adapted 
to  trade  with  the  interior,  and  the  percentage  of  loss  through  bad 
accounts  does  not  exceed  6  per  cent. 

Other  industries  are  also  being  invaded  by  the  Syrians.  They 
are  interested  in  agriculture,  contracting,  and  mining.  A  large  saw- 
mill and  cedar  plantation  near  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River  has 
been  established  by  them.  Cedar  and  mahogany  lumber  is  brought 
to  Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  by  means  of  a  seagoing  tug  and 
lighters  from  the  Atrato  River  to  lumber  yard^  for  retail  sale.  Rub- 
ber is  also  being  planted. 

Prior  to  the  war  the  Syrians  purchased  their  goods  principally  in 
Europe,  making  annual  trips  to  buy  the  year's  stock.  Durm^  the 
war  business  was  with  the  United  States,  but  there  is  a  decided  desire 
on  the  part  of  these  people  to  return  to  European  methods  and  mar- 
kets as  soon  as  possible,  on  account  of  the  credit  terms  formerly 
secured.  Long  credit  terms  are  the  fundamental  principle  of  their 
business  methods.  They  are  shrewd  buyers  and  traders,  and  very 
prone  to  speculate  and  overstock  if  opportunity  offers. 

On  the  whole,  these  people  may  be  considered  a  good  element  for 
the  country.  Thev  adapt  themselves  absolutely  to  the  customs  and 
living  conditions  oi  the  country,  and  are  investing  their  surplus  capi- 
tal in  cattle,  mines,  and  agricultural  lands  and  other  enterprises 
offering  safety  and  large  returns. 

COMMERCIAL  TERRITORY  OF  CARTAGENA. 

The  town  of  Magangue,  with  a  population  of  14,076,  Zambrano, 
with  only  2,702  inhabitants,  and  Mompos,  whose  population  is  15,435, 
are  situated  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar,  on  the  Magdalena  River, 
but  are  tributary  commercially  to  Barranquilla  on  account  of  direct 
communication  by  river  steamer.  Mompos  is  the  most  important, 
commercially.  It  is  the  center  of  a  rich  agricultural  and  cattle-rais- 
ing district  and  also  a  depot  for  such  river  products  as  tagua,  corozo 
nuts,  etc.  Monteria,  Cereta,  and  Lorica  are  river  ports  on  the  Sinu, 
and  all  traffic  is  with  Cartagena.  Tolu  is  a  small  seaport  on  the  Bay 
of  Morrosquillo  and  is  the  outlet  for  all  traffic  with  the  center  of  the 
Department,  communication  with  Cartagena  being  by  means  of  gas- 
oline launches  of  about  60  tons  burden.  Communication  with  the 
important  towns  of  Turbaco,  Arjona,  Soplaviento,  and  Arenal  is 
direct  by  the  railway  from  Cartagena.  Soplaviento  and  Arenal  are 
situated  on  the  Dique  at  the  point  where  it  is  crossed  bv  the  railway 
from  Cartagena  to  Calamar,  and  have  the  distinction  of  being  in  com- 
munication by  rail  and  by  water  with  Cartagena,  and  by  water  with 
Barranquilla,  the  Dique  entering  the  Magdalena  River  at  Calamar. 
Arjona  is  also  the  rail  point  for  the  sugar  lands  of  Sincerin,  commu- 
nication being  by  means  of  automobiles  for  passengers  and  by  pack 
mule  for  freight,  etc.  There  is  no  wagon  road  from  Arjona  to  Sin- 
cerin, but  during  the  dry  season  the  level  country  can  be  traversed 
by  automobiles  without  difficulty.  In  the  rainy  season,  travel  to 
Smcerin  and  the  country  south  is  by  saddle  and  pack  animals  only. 


214     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
HIGHWAY  TRANSPORTATION  AND  ROAD  CONSTRUCTION. 

There  is  only  one  wagon  road  in  the  Department  of  BoHvar.  This 
road  parallels  the  railway  from  Cartagena  as  far  as  La  Viuda,  a 
small  town  on  the  railway,  cast  of  Arjona.  This  road  is  of  dirt,  sur- 
faced with  "caliche,"  a  decomposed  limestone  formation  which  is 
the  predominating  surface  formation  in  this  entire  region  north  of 
the  Dique.  This  road  is  little  used  by  wheel  traffic,  there  being  few 
wagons  or  even  carts  in  the  country,  although  it  is  coming  to  be  used 
more  and  more  by  automobiles  from  Cartagena.  An  automobile 
stage  line  has  been  recently  established  between  Cartagena  and  the 
town  of  Turbaco,  a  distance  of  24  kilometers  (15  miles),  and  is  popu- 
lar on  account  of  its  affording  such  a  rapid  and  easy  mode  of  transpor- 
tation to  and  from  Cartagena.     The  charge  is  SI  per  person  each  way. 

Engineers  are  working  out  the  plans  for  a  contmuation  of  this  road 
to  connect  with  Savanalarga,  the  present  terminus  of  the  Barran- 
quilla  highway.  The  Department  of  Bolivar  is  also  surveying  a  new 
wagon  road  to  connect  with  river  navigation  on  the  Rio  Sinu  by  way 
of  Sincerin,  San  Juan,  Carmen,  Corozal,  Sincelejo,  San  Andres, 
Sahagun,  Chinu,  Cienaga  de  Oro,  and  Monteria.  This  road  is  con- 
sidered a  very  important  transportation  measure  and  will  connect 
all  the  important  towns  in  the  interior  of  the  Department  with 
Cartagena  and  also  furnish  land  transportation  to  the  rich  region  of 
the  Rio  Sinu.  The  entire  distance  is  over  level  country  and  no  great 
difficulty  should  be  encountered  in  the  construction  of  this  new  road 
so  far  as  topography  and  grades  are  concerned.  Heavy  work  will 
be  involved  in  clearing  away  the  jungle,  and  the  main  difficulty 
will  be  the  type  of  construction  necessary  to  avoid  damage  and  inter- 
ruption to  traffic  caused  by  overflow  water  during  the  rainy  season 
and  following  heavy  rains  in  the  hills  and  mountains  of  the  interior. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  THE  "DIQUE." 

The  "Dique"  is  a  natural  canal  or  river  channel,  connecting  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  with  the  ocean,  approximately  15  miles  south  of  Carta- 
gena. It  is  an  irregular  channel  about  60  miles  in  length,  which, 
during  and  immediately  after  the  high-water  stages  of  the  Magda- 
lena  Kiver,  carries  excess  water  to  the  swamps  which  extend  over 
a  great  area  to  the  south  of  Cartagena.  The  main  channel  is  more 
or  less  defined,  as  there  is  never  sufficient  current  to  cut  new  channels, 
but  the  growth  of  water  plants,  caving  banks,  etc.,  have  gradually 
filled  certain  places  so  that,  during  low  water,  this  important  high- 
way can  not  be  used  except  by  small  canoes  and  freight  boats.  Dur- 
ing the  rainy  season  there  is  sufficient  water  in  the  Dique  to  float 
river  steamers  from  the  Magdalena  River  to  Cartagena,  although 
even  then  difficulty  is  encountered  in  traversing  the  15  miles  from  the 
outlet  of  the  Dique,  at  the  ocean,  through  the  swamps  up  to  Carta- 
gena, because  of  the  shallow  water  in  these  series  of  swamps  and  the 
constantly  changing  channels. 

Another  factor  making  for  the  neglect  of  this  channel  of  com- 
munication has  been  the  Cartagena-Calamar  Railway,  which  is  used 
for  traffic  from  Cartagena  to  the  Magdalena  River  at  Calamar. 
This  line,  for  certain  reasons  connected  with  the  original  concession, 
climbs  a  series  of  high  hills  at  Turbaco,  that  town  being  situated  at  a 
considerable  elevation,  and  the  operation  of  the  line  is  difficult  and 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      215 

costly;  only  light  loads  can  be  handled  with  the  present  type  of 
roadoed  and  locomotive  equipment. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  Dique  could  easily  have  been  made 
practicable  for  river-steamer  navigation  from  Calamar  to  Cartagena. 
Also,  the  upkeep  expense  would  not  have  been  high  to  maintain  a 
permanent  channel.  In  Spanish  colonial  times  the  Dique  -was  used 
for  all  traffic  and  was  navigable  for  quite  large  boats.  At  present 
the  Ingenio  Central  (Sugar  Co.  of  Sincerin)  in  combination  with 
the  departmental  and  national  governments  has  a  small  dipper  dredge 
at  work  on  the  Dique  at  Sincerin,  where  a  small  port  has  been  con- 
structed to  handle  the  machinery,  supplies,  and  products  of  the  sugar 
mill.  A  rail  line  from  the  plantation  has  been  extended  to  the 
Dique  (a  distance  of  about  2  miles  from  the  main  buildings  of  Sin- 
cerm),  loading  sheds  have  been  constructed,  etc.  It  is  planned  to 
improve  the  entire  channel  from  Sincerin  to  the  swamps  and  thence 
up  as  far  as  Cartagena  and  make  this  channel  navigable  for  boats  of 
several  hundred  tons  burden. 

PRESENT  RAILWAY  EQUIPMENT  AND  PROPOSED  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  Department  of  Bolivar  has  onl^  one  railway,  the  line  from 
Cartagena  to  Calamar,  105  kilometers  m  length.  About  four  hours 
is  consumed  in  traversing  this  distance.  The  railway  was  first  pro- 
iected  and  built  by  American  capital,  but  was  taken  over  by  the  Co- 
lombian Railway  &  Navigation  Co.  (Ltd.),  an  English  concern  also 
interested  in  Magdalena  River  navigation. 

The  rolling  stock  at  present  is  very  poor  and  needs  repair  and 
rep»lacement.  It  consists  of  10  coaches,  3  baggage  cars,  and  130 
freight  cars  of  box  and  flat  types.  The  roadbed  is  of  36-inch  gauge, 
rock  ballasted.,  There  are  39  grades,  the  maximum  being  2^  per 
cent.  The  heavy  grade  and  sharp  curves  (70-meter  radius)  at  the 
approaches  to  the  town  of  Turbaco  make  it  impossible  to  pull  heavy 
trains  with   the   type  of  locomotive   equipment  and  fuel  used  at 

{)resent.  During  the  war,  wood  mixed  with  coal  was  used  b}^  the 
ine.  There  are  water  tanks  and  coal  bins  along  the  route,  at  15, 
26,  69,  and  105  kilometers.  Cattle  chutes  are  located  at  intervals, 
also,    along   the  line. 

The  shops  belonging  to  the  company  are  at  El  Espinal,  kilometer 
2.  The  equipment  includes  a  small  foundry,  machine  shop,  turntable, 
large  water  tanks  of  both  cement  and  wood  material,  all  sufficient  for 
the  repair  service  of  the  road.  Stations  on  the  line  are  located  at 
Turbaco,  Arjona,  San  Estanislao,  Soplaviento,  and  Calamar.  A 
warehouse  is  located  at  Calamar,  its  loading  equipment  consisting  of 
15  tons  at«20-foot  boom  radius.  However,  there  are  no  loading 
stages  at  this  point  for  the  river  steamers,  all  cargo  being  handled  by 
stevedores  and  carriers. 

On  account  of  the  state  of  national  finances  and  the  better  fiscal 
condition  of  the  various  Departments,  the  present  tendency  is  for 
the  departmental  governments  to  built  railways,  the  National 
Government  allowing  a  fixed  subsidy  or  allotment  for  each  kilometer 
constructed  by  each  Department.  These  allotments  are  financed  by 
the  new  internal-loan  Donds. 

The  Department  of  Bolivar  is  now  conducting  a  survey  of  the 
proposed  route  for  a  new  line  from  Cartagena  to  Monteria,  which 


216     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

will  also  connect  with  the  new  route  of  the  railway  under  construc- 
tion by  the  Department  of  Antioauia.  The  latter  has  as  its  objective 
the  seaport  anorded  by  the  Guli  of  Uraba.  The  National  Govern- 
ment will  allow  a  subvention  of  15,000  Colombian  dollars  per 
kilometer  for  this  new  line,  and  the  finances  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Bolivar  are  in  a  condition  to  warrant  the  contracting  of  a 
lai^e  foreign  loan  for  this  purpose.  The  chamber  of  commerce 
of  Cartagena  has  also  voted  the  sum  of  20,000  Colombian  dollars 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  new  survey  and  to  stimulate 
this  railway  construction.  According  to  the  preliminary  plans,  a 
light  narrow-gauge  railwav  is  to  be  built,  the  construction  and 
equipment  to  coiuorm  to  the  present  actual  needs  of  the  region  and 
traffic  requirements,  the  preference  being  for  an  electric  line  using 
Diesel-electric  locomotives  of  light  weight. 

HARBOR  AND  PORT  FACIUTIES. 

The  harbor  of  Cartagena  is  landlocked,  and  the  channel  up  the  bay 
to  the  dock,  while  narrow,  is  deep  enough  for  large  oceangoing 
steamers,  the  average  depth  being  from  30  to  40  feet.  The  port's 
growing  trade  demands  better  facilities  than  are  now  afforded.  The 
present  pier  and  port  improvements  were  completed  by  an  English 
concern,  the  Colombian  Railways  &  Navigation  Co.,  24  years  ago. 
The  wharf  located  in  the  bay  has  three  berths.  It  is  500  feet  16ng 
by  120  feet  wide.  A  warehouse  for  the  customs  is  located  on  the 
pier;  a  second  warehouse,  305  feet  by  40  feet,  is  used  for  storing 
export  cargo.  Other  storage  facilities  are  also  afforded.  The  local 
bunker  capacity  of  the  port  is  estimated  at  3,625  tons. 

General  cargo  is  discharged  at  the  rate  of  about  25  tons  per  hatch 
an  hour,  and  loaded  at  the  rate  of  30  tons  per  hatch.  The  nature  of 
the  goods  to  be  discharged  and  the  winch  equipment  of  the  vessel 
determine  the  amount  of  time  required.  Inward-bound  cargo  is  un- 
loaded from  the  ship  to  the  dock  and  trucked  to  the  customs  ware- 
house. Railway  cars  run  into  this  warehouse  to  take  out  the  released 
cargo,  which  is  handled  by  trucks  from  warehouse  to  cars  and  then 
loaded  by  hand.  Heavy  and  bulky  packages  are  moved  by  means 
of  a  15-ton,  hand-power  crane.  Storage  capacity  at  the  dock  for 
inward-bound  cargo  is  3,000  tons;  for  outward  bound,  3,500  tons. 
Switching  facilities  are  afforded  for  12  cars.  Cargo  is  not  protected 
by  insurance  while  on  the  dock  or  in  sheds.  All  merchandise  is  de- 
livered by  the  ship  to  the  customhouse,  its  receipt  being  entirely 
controlled  by  the  (government. 

A  charge  of  $10  per  ship  is  made  for  sanitary  service  rendered. 
The  charges  for  berthing  are:  Wharfage,  $0.18  per  gro^s  weight  of 
cargo  landed;  pilotage,  $0.01  per  net-ton  register  of  vessel;  lighthouse 
dues,  $0.05  per  net-ton  register  for  each  ton  up  to  100  tons,  $0,025 
for  each  ton  over  100;  tonnage  dues,  $2  per  gross  ton  of  cargo  landed. 
There  are  no  buoy  charges. 

Work  on  the  snip  is  done  by  a  shore  crew  furnished  by  the  rail- 
way company.  Usually  from  35  to  40  men  are  employed,  although 
150  can  be  supplied  on  short  notice.  The  regular  wage  is  $1.20  per 
day  of  eight  hours  with  $0.30  per  hour  overtime  rate  during  the  day; 
$2.40  is  the  wage  for  night  work.  The  n^ajority  of  workmen  are 
Negroes  and  Creoles.     A  few  experienced  checking  clerks  who  are  em- 


ECO^rOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      217 

Eloyed  regularly  by  the  railway  receive  $3  per  day  and  $0.60  per 
our  for  overtime;  $6  is  paid  for  night  work. 

The  shipowners  are  responsible  for  breakage  on  the  wharf  if  the 
merchandise  is  still  in  ship's  tackle,  otherwise  the  customhouse  is 
responsible,  and  after  the  release  of  the  merchandise  the  railway 
company  assumes  the  liability  in  case  of  loss  or  damage.  Unclaimed 
cargo  is  disposed  of  after  six  months  if  not  cleared  by  consignees, 
being  sold  at  public  auction.  Responsibihty  of  the  carrier  ceases 
when  cargo  is  received  by  the  customhouse  on  the  wharf. 

WATER  TKANSPORTATION  BY  WAY  OF  SINU  AND  ATRATO  RIVERS. 

The  regions  of  the  Sinu  and  Atrato  Rivers  are  tributary,  commer- 
cially, to  Cartagena.  Means  of  communication  are  small  steamers 
and  motor  vessels  from  Cartagena  to  the  seaport  of  Tolu  on  the  Gulf 
of  Morrosquillo,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sinu  River,  and  thence  to  the 
port  of  Cispata  and  up  the  Sinu  River  as  far  as  Monteria,  when  the 
stage  of  the  river  will  permit;  also  from  Cartagena  to  Quibdo,  on  the 
headwaters  of  the  Atrato  River,  via  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  Vessels  en- 
gaged in  this  traffic  call  at  Tolu  both  ways,  but  the  same  boats  do  not 
make  the  Sinu  and  Atrato  runs.  The  course  is  out  to  sea  through  the 
"Boca  Chica"  and  across  the  Gulf  of  Morrosquillo.  During  the  dry 
season  of  the  year  these  small  steamers,  drawing  not  over  6  feet  of 
water  loaded,  can  not  go  up  the  Sinu  River  farther  than  Lorica,  and 
at  times  of  exceptionally  low  water,  not  even  to  Lorica.  When  these 
boats  can  not  reach  Monteria,  which  is  the  chief  town  of  the  region, 
traffic  is  continued  by  means  of  small  launches  and  large  canoes.  The 
mouth  of  the  Sinu  does  not,  however,  present  the  same  condition  of 
sand  bars,  etc.,  as  do  the  mouths  of  the  Atrato  and  Magdalena  Rivers. 
The  Atrato  is  a  much  larger  stream  than  the  Sinu  and  receives 
abundant  water,  bemg  in  the  region  of  heavy  rainfall,  but  while  the 
river  itself  is  very  deep  and  navigable  for  even  much  larger  vessels 
than  those  used  at  the  present  time,  its  mouth  is  obstructed  by  sand 
bars  dangerous  to  navigation.  During  exceptionally  dry  seasons 
even  these  small  boats  can  not  at  times  enter  the  river.  Sometimes 
boats  are  held  up  for  10  days  at  a  time,  and  occasionally  they  are 
forced  to  stay  in  the  river  for  months.  The  coast  is  also  dangerous, 
with  no  aids  to  navigation.  Accidents  are  frequent,  and  several 
boats  have  been  wrecked  on  the  coast  and  in  the  river.  About  two 
trips  a  month  is  the  best  that  can  be  done  by  one  boat  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  of  weather  and  high  water. 

Passenger  accommodations  are  rather  limited  in  regard  to  facul- 
ties afforded.  First-class  cabins  are  provided,  but  contain  nothing 
in  the  way  of  furniture  beyond  a  canvas  cot.  Travelers  must  furnish 
their  own  bedding,  towels,  and  other  necessities.  The  food  served 
on  board  is  very  coarse  and  poorly  prepared.  The  traveler  will  do 
well  to  provide  a  stock  of  tinned  provisions,  bottled  water,  etc.  A 
good  mosquito  net  is  essential.  In  Lorica,  Monteria,  and  other  Sinu 
River  points  hotel  accommodations  ashore  are  rather  primitive. 
The  food  is  poorly  prepared  and  insanitary  conditions  are  the  rule 
rather  than  the  exception.  The  climate  is  tropical  and  insects 
abound  in  large  numbers.  Mosquitoes  are  a  constant  source  of  dis- 
comfort and  danger.  The  Atrato  River  is  still  more  primitive. 
There  are  no  large  towns  until  Quibdo  is  reached,  although  there  are 


218     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

numerous  Negro  and  Indian  villages  along  the  river.  Here  the 
Negroes  and  Indians  live  in  an  aboriginal  state,  the  Indians  being 
wholly  uncivilized.  As  a  rule,  they  are  peaceful  and  inoffensive  i7 
not  disturbed. 

Quibdo,  located  on  the  cast  bank  of  the  Atrato  River,  has  a  popu- 
lation of  about  6,000.  The  town  has  always  been  very  rich  in  plati- 
num. Rains  in  this  region  are  incessant,  causing  frequent  fwods, 
so  that  agriculture  can  not  be  carried  on  successfully.  Various  kmds 
of  rubber  are  found,  as  well  as  the  ipecac  root  and  tagua. 

OCEAN  AND  MAGDALENA  RIVER  FREIGHT  SERVICE. 

The  vessels  of  nine  steamship  companies  touch  at  Cartagena. 
The  increasing  coffee  trade  and  trie  amount  of  freight  offered  make 
this  an  attractive  run  for  steamship  cornpanies.  However,  large 
freighters  coming  to  Puerto  Colombia  or  Cartagena  are  sometimes 
forced  to  leave  without  the  expected  cargoes  of  exports,  such  as 
coffee,  etc.  This  was  the  case  during  three  months  in  1919,  when  the 
condition  of  the  Magdalena  River  rendered  it  impossible  to  deliver 
export  freight  at  the  coast,  the  river  points  being  literally  congested 
with  coffee  and  other  exports  during  this  time.  Warehousing  be- 
came a  problem  and  goods  were*  damaged  by  being  left  out  in  the 
weather. 

AGRICULTURE. 


Sugar  cane  grows  without  irrigation  in  the  Cartagena  region,  an 
average  of  60  tons  being  produced  per  hectare  (2.471  acres)  per 
annum.  Some  cane  fields  in  the  district  are  15  years  old  and  are 
still  producing  without  fertilization  or  replanting.  Good  sugar  land 
may  be  purchased  for  an  average  price  oi  $1.50  per  hectare,  the  cost 
of  clearing  and  fencing  being  not  over  $20  per  nectare,  though  this 
estimate  does  not  include  stumping  and  plowing  for  immediate 
planting. 

There  is  only  one  large  sugar  plantation  using  modem  machinery 
in  the  entire  coast  region.  This  is  the  Colombian  Sugar  Co.,  with 
plantations  and  mill  at  Sincerin,  known  locally  as  the  Ingenio  Central. 
The  company  has  a  capital  of  $2,000,000  and  employs  from  3,000 
to  5,000  men,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  The  total  extent 
of  the  property,  including  raw  lands  and  cattle  pastures,  is  approx- 
imately 18,000  hectares  (44,478  acres).  Up  to  the  present  time  a 
total  of  $1,400,000  has  been  invested,  and  plans  are  under  way  to 
increase  the  grinding  machinery  with  three  new  and  powerful  units. 
An  average  of  2,000  hectares  (4,942  acres)  of  cane  are  grown  yearly 
without  irrigation.  The  average  production  is  40  tons  per  hectare 
(16.19  tons  per  acre),  though  a  production  of  60  tons  per  hectare 
(24.28  tons  per  acre)  is  often  obtained.  The  value  of  tne  plant  is 
estimated  at  $1,500,000.  Its  capacity  is  1,000  tons  of  cane,  and  an 
average  of  100,000  hundredweight  is  turned  out  in  refined  sugar  per 
annum.  The  percentage  of  extraction  on  the  basis  of  weight  of  cane 
is  over  9  per  cent. 

The  management  of  the  Colombian  Sugar  Co.  is  very  modern 
and  efficient  in  every  respect.  The  plantation  has  a  complete  rail- 
way system  for  handling  cane  and  for  shipping  by  way  of  tne  Dique. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     219 

Gasoline  tractors  of  both  the  wheel  and  caterpillar  types  are  used  for 
plowing.  Planting  of  cane  is  done  by  ''colonos"  or  renters,  accord- 
ing to  the  well-known  Cuban  system.  A  ''colono"  is  allotted  so 
much  cleared  land  and,  in  many  cases,  is  practically  financed  by  the 
sugar  company,  since  all  of  his  supplies  are  bought  from  the  com- 
pany's commissary  store  established  for  the  purpose.  Money  is  also 
advanced  to  planters  for  the  purpose  of  meeting  their  pay  rolls, 
though  at  least  75  per  cent  is  taken  in  merchandise  by  the  workmen. 
The  cane  is  paid  for  at  the  rate  of  $2.50  per  ton  delivered  at  the  mill, 
all  expenses  of  plowing  by  machinery,  transportation  to  the  mill, 
etc.,  being  charged  to  the  account  of  the  "colono."  A  good  yield 
is  60  tons  per  hectare,  though  the  yield  is  sometimes  as  low  as  18 
tons  and  often  amounts  to  30  or  40  tons. 

New  sugar  lands  are  to  be  opened  up  about  6  miles  farther  south, 
near  the  town  of  Maria  la  Baja,  where  better  lands  are  found  for 
the  cane,  the  soil  retaining  more  moisture  during  the  dry  season 
than  farther  north  near  the  Dique.  This  condition  increases  still 
farther  to  the  south  and  southwest  of  Sincerin,  and  it  was  noted 
in  March,  1919,  after  five  months'  lack  of  rain,  that  the  Para  grass 
near  Maria  la  Baja  was  green  and  the  cattle  fat  and  sleek,  while 
around  Sincerin  the  pastures  were  dry  and  yellow,  the  cattle  being 
forced  to  move  to  the  river  and  the  Dique  for  green  feed  and  water. 
These  new  lands  of  the  Colombian  Sugar  Co.  will  necessitate  about 
6  miles  of  new  railway  construction,  tne  material  for  which  is  now 
on  the  ground.  Already  large  quantities  of  sugar  have  been  sold 
to  the  Panama  Canal  Commissary  Department,  one  order  aggre- 
gating 1,000,000  pounds.  Sincerin  has  the  advantage  of  water  trans- 
portation to  tidewater  as  well  as  railway  connection  with  the  Mag- 
dalena  River,  the  highway  of  the  interior. 


Rice  has  become  one  of  the  great  staple  articles  of  food  in  the  coun- 
try and  is  used  more  and  more  throughout  South  America.  At  the 
present  time  a  very  poor  grade  of  native  rice  sells  on  the  open  market, 
in  small  lots,  for  S12.50  per  100  pounds  at  wholesale.  The  price 
varies  from  $11  to  $14  per  100  pounds  according  to  the  season  of 
the  year,  market  conditions,  etc.  Rice  from  the  United  States  is 
still  being  imported  in  large  quantities,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
this  grain  does  very  well  in  this  region,  with  very  Httle  preparation 
of  the  soil. 

A  modem  concrete  rice  mill  is  being  constructed  near  Cartagena 
at  an  outlay  of  about  $10,000.  The  building  is  now  complete,  with 
the  exception  of  the  roof.  Because  of  the  war,  the  arrival  of  the 
material  for  the  latter,  as  well  as  the  machinery  for  the  mill,  has 
been  delayed.  The  mill  is  situated  on  the  bay,  wnere  a  wharf  will  be 
constructed  to  receive  the  raw  product  and  to  ship  the  cleaned  rice 
into  the  interior  of  the  country,  where  better  prices  can  be  obtained 
than  in  a  foreign  market.  The  decorticating  capacity  of  the  mill  will 
be  2,000  barrels  of  160  pounds  each,  in  24  hours.  Rice  runs  50  per 
cent  chaff  by  bulk.  This  company  plans  to  sow  about  2,000  hectares 
(4,942  acres)  of  rice  in  1919,  and  gradually  increase  this  acreage  to 
8,000  hectares  (19,768  acres).  An  attempt  was  made  during  1918  to 
plant  rice  on  a  large  scale  south  of  Sincerin.     A  25-horsepower  steam 


220     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

tractor,  disk  plows,  harrows,  etc.,  were  imported  for  the  purpose. 
There  were  1,482  acres  planted  in  rice,  but  the  winter  rains  failed 
and  the  grain  got  no  water  during  five  months.  The  crop  was  a 
failure,  onlj  about  20  per  cent  being  harvested,  but  notwithstanding 
these  conditions,  the  small  amount  produced  paid  for  the  machinery 
and  left  a  small  surplus.  It  is  believed  that,  for  certain  varieties  of 
rice,  some  sort  of  irrigation  must  be  provided,  such  as  diking  for  the 
control  of  flood  waters  in  reservoirs. 

COTTON. 

Cotton  is  selling  in  Medellin,  for  local  miU  consumption,  at  60 
cents  per  kilo  (2.2  pounds).  This  contains  the  seed  and  has  to 
be  cleaned  at  the  factory.  Local  mills  on  the  coast  and  in  the 
interior  can  not  get  enough  of  the  native  cotton,  though  they  have 
offered  all  sorts  of  inducements  to  planters  to  grow  it.  Colombian 
potton  is  very  fine  and  of  long  staple,  and  for  this  reason  is  not 
well  liked  by  native  spinners,  since  they  manufacture  only  rough 
and  cheap  grades  of  cloth.  Although  a  considerable  area  has 
been  planted  from  time  to  time,  little  progress  has  been  made  in 
real  cultivation  of  this  important  crop.  At  present  the  cotton  is 
planted  without  any  previous  preparation  of  the  soil,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  cutting  down  and  the  burning  of  the  brush.  Weeds 
are  chopped  out  with  machetes.  During  the  first  three  years  corn 
is  planted  between  the  rows  of  cotton  plants.  Replanting  is  not 
necessary  for  five  years.  One  thousand  pounds  per  hectare  are 
produced  the  first  year,  2,000  the  second,  and  an  equal  amount  the 
third.  American  seed  is  largely  used,  and  it  is  the  opinion  of  ex- 
perts that  planters  would  do  much  better  to  plant  the  native  varie- 
ties, which  are  of  long  staple,  of  high  tensile  strength,  and  much  less 
subject  to  damage  by  insects.  The  staple  is  1|  to  1^  inches  long, 
when  grown  from  Mississippi  seed.  It  resembles  sea-island  cotton, 
but  the  fiber,  which  is  long  and  silky,  is  said  to  be  too  fine  for  local 
mills.  In  1914  Colombian  cotton  sold  in  Liverpool  for  24  cents 
per  pound.  The  production  in  that  year  was  789,390  pounds 
of  raw  cotton.  During  1917,  $23,777  worth  of  Colombian  cotton 
was  shipped  to  the  United  States.  At  the  present  time  there  are 
not  sufficient  staples  grown  in  Colombia  to  supply  the  local  dematid 
without  resort  to  importation.  However,  production  of  any  staple 
on  a  large  scale  would  necessitate  the  establishment  of  market  con- 
nections with  either  the  United  States  or  the  countries  of  the  west 
coast  of  South  America. 


In  the  vicinity  of  the  town  of  Carmen,  tobacco  is  gi'own  for  export 
as  well  as  for  domestic  consumption.  This  region  produces  a 
very  excellent  grade  of  tobacco,  which  finds  a  ready  market  in 
France  and  in  the  United  States,  although  scientific  methods  of  se- 
lection of  seed,  curing,  etc.,  are  not  known  or  used  in  any  manner 
whatever,  the  tobacco  being  planted  with  a  sharp  stick  and  given 
very  little  attention  in  the  way  of  cultivation.  Occasionally  the 
weeds  are  chopped  out.  In  1919,  341,217  pounds  of  tobacco,  valued 
at  $35,683,  were  exported  to  the  United  States  from  Cartagena. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      221 


BANANAS   AND   COCONUTS. 


Bananas  and  coconuts  are  the  principal  articles  of  diet  of  the 
common  people  in  the  country  and  smaller  towns.  Every  small  hut 
or  house  has  its  banana  plants  for  home  consumption.  Two  varieties 
are  grown — the  ordinary  banana,  which  is  eaten  raw,  and  the  plan- 
tain, which  is  cooked  in  many  different  ways.  The  latter  is  probably 
the  article  of  greatest  production  in  the  region.  In  Bolivar  there  are 
no  plantations  growing  bananas  for  export. 

Coconuts  do  well  along  the  coast  west  of  Cartagena,  and  there 
are  a  number  of  small  groves  owned  by  well-to-do  Negroes.  This  in- 
dustry could  be  greatly  increased  throughout  the  coast  region  from 
Cartagena  to  the  Gulf  of  Uraba.  During  1916  coconuts  to  the 
value  of  $35,777  were  exported  from  Cartagena,  going  principally  to 
Panama.  During  1917  only  $18,626  worth  of  nuts  were  exported, 
according  to  official  reports,  though  a  considerable  trade  in  nuts  is 
carried  on  by  small  coasting  schooners  that  run  up  into  the  Gulf 
of  Uraba  and  traffic  with  Cuba  and  Panama.  In  1918  the  value 
of  the  coconuts  exported  to  the  United  States  and  the  Canal  Zone 
did  not  reach  $4,000.  At  Medellin  and  elsewhere  in  the  interior, 
coconuts  sell  for  12  cents  each  at  retail,  whereas  the  local  market 
price  at  Cartagena  is  6  to  9  cents  each.  The  meat  is  used  to  mix 
with  rice  for  cooking,  and  is  a  staple  article  of  diet  for  all  classes. 
Certainly  there  is  opportunity  here  for  the  development,  on  a  large 
scale,  of  both  coconut  and  banana  culture  for  export.  Each  coco- 
nut palm  produces  $1  net  per  year  after  reaching  the  age  of  six  years, 
and  it  is  calculated  in  selling  groves  that  each  palm  in  production 
is  worth  $5,  producing  20  per  cent  net  on  that  valuation. 


AGRICULTURAL   AND   MILLING   MACHINERY. 


Of  the  total  of  $2,000,000  worth  of  machinery  imported  into  Co- 
lombia yearly,  only  about  10  per  cent  is  agricultural  machinery. 
Plows,  except  at  Sincerin,  are  practically  unknown.  American  plows 
were  first  tried  out  near  Monteria,  on  the  Sinu  River,  but  proved  a 
failure  because  of  lack  of  knowledge  in  their  use.  Local  planters 
argue  that  plows  are  not  necessary  m  this  region,  the  land  being  so 
ricn  as  to  need  no  cultivation.  The  introduction  of  modern  agri- 
cultural implements  and  machinery  into  this  district  will  be  diffi- 
cult, and  considerable  demonstrating  will  have  to  be  done  in  order 
to  convince  the  people  of  the  advantage  of  modern  methods.  More 
capital  and  a  wider  knowledge  of  the  opportunities  for  exportation 
of  products  are  needed  in  order  to  further  agricultural  development. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  a  limited  market  for  milling  machin- 
ery for  cereals,  rice,  oil  seeds,  and  small  sugar  mills.  Since  wood 
is  very  cheap  and  plentiful,  small  boilers  are  preferred,  although,  on 
account  of  tne  difficulty  of  transporting  heavy  pieces  of  machinery 
into  the  interior  of  the  district,  fuel-oil  engines  are  occasionally 
selected.  The  oil  is  secured  from  the  refinery  at  Cartagena.  Later, 
when  cotton  is  grown  more  extensively  in  the  Caribbean  district, 
cotton  gins  will  also  be  in  demand.  At  the  present  time  the  chief 
tools  and  implements  used  are  machetes,  axes,  and  a  few  broad, 
heavy  hoes  called  "coas." 


222    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

IMMIGRATION  NEEDED— LABOB  LAWS. 

Immigration  is  needed,  not  because  there  is  any  real  scarcity  of 
labor  but  because  foreigners  will  teach  the  people  to  be  workers. 
Improved  sanitary  concutions  will  come  with  development.  When 
young,  the  average  Colombian  readily  learns  to  handle  machinery 
and  can  be  taught  weaving,  etc.  The  women  are  quick  and  patient 
workers  in  the  textile  mills,  and  are  more  constant  than  the  men. 
On  heavy  work,  such  as  railway  construction,  mining,  and  oil-well 
work,  the  men  average  two  days  of  actual  work  a  weeK.  The  aver- 
age is  better  in  the  interior.  The  cities  possess  a  small  class  of  fairly 
good  cabinetmakers  and  native  carpenters,  blacksmiths,  and  other 
artificers.  Excellent  finishing  work  for  interior  decorations  is  done 
with  native  hardwoods.  The  average  wage  paid  to  agricultural  la- 
borers in  the  Department  of  Bolivar  is  $0.60  per  day.  The  wage  is 
based  on  the  piece-work  system.  Stevedores,  docK  workers,  and 
other  similar  laoorers  make  from  $0.80  to  $1.20  per  day. 

In  1915  the  Government  passed  a  workmen's  compensation  law. 
This  new  law  benefits  men  employed  in  electric-light  plants,  street 
railways,  waterworks,  railways,  breweries,  distilleries,  match  fac- 
tories, building  and  construction  trades,  mines,  quarries,  manufac- 
turing plants  using  power,  and  Government  work  of  all  kinds.  Em- 
ployers of  labor  may  also  protect  their  men  by  taking  out  "  blanket " 
policies  with  insurance  companies. 

During  recent  years  Colombia  has  experienced  labor  strikes  which 
have  been  attended  with  more  or  less  violence.  In  January,  1918, 
there  were  general  strikes  throughout  the  coast  region  along  the 
Carribean  coast.  Martial  law  was  declared  by  the  Government  in 
Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  and  Cartagena.  The  movement  was  pri- 
marily due  to  political  reasons,  and  also  grew  out  of  war  conditions, 
since  the  shutting  off  of  ocean  traffic  caused  widespread  lack  of  em- 
ployment. During  the  spring  of  1919  there  were  many  local  dis- 
turbances along  the  Magdalena  Kiver  among  railway  workers, 
stevedores,  cargo  handlers,  and  woodchoppers.  These  strikes  have 
always  been  settled  by  the  granting  of  a  slightly  increased  wage  to 
the  workers. 

FOREST  PRODUCTS  OF  REGION  WEST  OF  CARTAGENA. 

The  natural  wealth  of  the  forest  region  west  of  Cartagena  is,  no 
doubt,  enormous,  but  this  potential  wealth  is  scattered  over  a  wide 
area  and  is  practically  inaccessible  for  exploitation.  The  Atrato 
River  region,  on  the  J^acific  side,  is  said  to  contain  much  valuable 
cedar,  but  the  natural  difficulties  and  lack  of  transportation  facilities 
make  exploitation  on  a  large  scale  impossible.  Tne  present  supply 
satisfies  the  local  demand. 

During  1918  Cartagena  exported  to  the  United  States  the  following 

Quantities  of  forest  products,   all    of  which  were  gathered  by  the 
[egroes  and  natives  of  the  interior,  the  work  extending  as  far  as 
the  headwaters  of  the  Atrato  River: 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      223 


Articles. 


Balsam  copaiba 

Canime  oil 

Cedar  and  mahogany 

Chicle 

Ipecac 


Pounds. 


7,365 
11, 401 
1  1,200,639 
86,585 
47, 181 


Value. 


S3, 804 
6,148 

71, 887 
41,450 
98,564 


Articles. 


Ivory  nuts  (tagua) 

Palm-kernel  oil 

Rubber  (balata)... 

Sisal  fiber 

Tannic  extract 


Pounds.       Value. 


4,06.3,011 

65, 076 

395,318 

20,882 

733, 751 


$156, 819 

9,530 

174, 761 

2,671 

44,223 


iFeet. 


NUTS   AND   MEDICINAL  PLANTS, 


Another  product  that  deserves  mention  is  the  nut  of  the  corozo 
palm.  This  palm  is  the  same  as  the  ''cohune"  of  Central  America 
and  is  found  in  ^reat  abundance  throughout  the  Bolivar  plains  and 
as  far  west  as  the  Atrato  River.  There  is  an  unhmited  supply  of 
raw  material.  When  pastures  are  cleared  for  cattle  the  corozo  palms 
are  left  for  the  gathering  of  the  seeds.  There  is  an  opportunity  for 
a  small  factory  for  this  industry  at  Cartagena,  or  at  Monteria  on  the 
Sinu  River.  The  gathering  of  the  nuts  presents  no  particular  diffi- 
culty. Two  harvests  are  obtained  yearly  after  the  palm  has  reached 
maturity,  which  is  attained  at  the  age  of  four  or  five  years.  The 
nuts  are  very  rich  in  food  value,  the  oil  having  been  used  by  the 
aborigines  for  centuries.  The  extraction  runs  about  25  per  cent  of 
pure  oil  per  weight  of  raw  nuts  after  drying.  About  25  pounds  of  the 
nuts,  which  grow  in  large  bunches  near  the  ground,  can  be  expected 
from  each  palm,  annually.  The  tagua  nut  is  one  of  the  principal 
articles  of  export  of  Cartagena.  The  chief  supply  comes  from  the 
region  of  the  Atrato  River  to  Cartagena  for  export,  although  the 
Pacific  coast  of  Colombia  exports  large  quantities  also. 

The  forests  of  Bolivar  and  the  regions  of  the  Sinu  and  Atrato 
Rivers,  particularly  the  latter,  are  ricli  in  medicinal  plants,  such  as 
the  ipecacuana,  or  the  ipecac  of  commerce,  sarsaparilla,  cinchona  bark, 
or  quinine,  cascara  sagrada,  and  many  others.  About  $50,000  worth 
of  these  products  are  shipped  each  year  from  Cartagena  to  the 
United  States.  There  are  also  several  palms  that  produce  gums 
and  varnish  material,  such  as  the  famous  ceroxylon  palm,  but,  so  far, 
little  or  nothing  has  been  done  in  this  region  toward  the  collection 
of  these  gums  in  marketable  quantities. 


DEVELOPMENT    OF   CEDAR   INDUSTRY. 


A  firm  of  Syrians  has  established  a  large  sawmill  30  miles  up  the 
Atrato  River  and  6  miles  from  the  coast.  It  owns  5,000  hectares 
(12,355  acres)  of  land  along  the  river.  Since  the  most  accessible 
cedar  has  been  cut,  the  company  has  planted  20,000  young  trees 
along  the  river,  and  plans  to  increase  this  number  by  10,000  trees 
each  year,  in  order  to  insure  a  future  source  of  supply  of  cedar  logs 
for  the  mill.  The  Negroes  along  the  river  have  also  been  induced 
to  plant  from  5,000  to  6,000  trees  annually.  The  present  supply  is 
irregular,  and  not  enough  logs  are  delivered  to  keep  the  mill  work- 
ing continuously.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  the  river  branches  usually 
become  dry  in  December,  logs  can  not  be  handled  until  the  flood  sea- 
son. Considerable  work  has  been  done  at  the  mill  to  afford  access  to 
the  river,  a  heavy  fill  having  been  built  for  this  purpose.  Approxi- 
mately $250,000  has  already  been  spent  on  this  property  oy  the 


224    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

owners  since  the  erection  of  the  mill  in  1906.  It  takes  10  years'  time 
for  the  seed  of  the  cedar  to  ^row  to  proper  size  for  lumber  in  this 
region,  where  the  tree  is  native.  A  full-grown  cedar  10  years  old 
is  valued  at  $10.  The  cost  of  cedar  delivered  at  the  mill  is  $0.01 
per  board  foot.  The  retail  price  at  Cartagena  is  $0.06  to  $0.07 
per  board  foot.  The  estimated  monthly  consumption  of  lumber  at 
Caribbean  coast  points  is,  in  board  leet,  as  follows:  Cartagena, 
35,000;  Barranqmlla,  80,000;  and  Puerto  Rico,  100,000.  There  is 
also  a  market  at  Colon,  Panama,  and  Curasao.     The  owners  of  this 

f>roperty  claim  that  there  is  room  for  expansion.     Three  waterfalls, 
rom  which  an  aggregate  of  5,000  horsepower  can  be  developed,  are 
situated  4  miles  distant  from  the  present  mill. 

PETROLEUM. 

In  spite  of  the  many  surface  indications  of  the  presence  of  petro- 
leum throughout  the  coast  region  from  Puerto  Colombia  to  the 
Atrato  River,  drilling  operations  have  been  unsuccessful  up  to  the 
present  time.  In  the  Sinu  district,  $750,000  was  spent  by  an  Ameri- 
can oil  company  without  definite  results.  Other  drilling  work  near 
the  town  of  Turbaco  also  resulted  in  failure  to  bring  in  oil  in  paying 
quantities. 

Judging  from  the  consensus  of  opinion  of  several  engineers  who 
have  studied  the  territory,  it  is  believed  that  no  good  wells  will  be 
found  on  the  flat  coast  country,  and  that  future  drilling  operations 
will  have  to  be  carried  on  in  the  district  farther  south  oi  Cartagena, 
back  of  the  line  of  foothills  just  north  of  the  big  bend  in  the  Cauca 
River. 

There  are  many  rumors  of  petrolemn  indications  in  the  Atrato 
and  Choco  river  regions,  samples  of  high-grade  crude  oil  being 
brought  in  by  natives  frequently.  Exploration  work  in  these 
regions  would  be  extremely  difficult  on  account  of  the  very  bad 
climate  and  the  dense  jungles  encountered  everywhere. 

PLATINUM  AND  GOLD  MINING. 

The  Atrato  and  Choco  Rivers  are  tributary  to  Cartagena  com- 
mercially. Therefore  merchants  in  Cartagena  are  the  heaviest  buyers 
of  platinum  and  gold  from  the  placei*s  of  these  rivers,  and  also  supply 
the  merchandise  needs  of  the  region  through  their  agencies  estab- 
lished in  Quibdo,  Istmina,  and  Baudo.  The  development  of  water 
transportation  of  the  San  Juan  River  has  taken  some  of  this  trade 
away  from  Cartagena,  and  the  district  has  also  been  invaded  by 
traders  from  Medellin,  in  Antioquia. 

PRODUCTION    OK   ILATIXUM    STIMUIATED   BY   HIGH    WAR   TRICES. 

Colombia  produces  an  average  of  30,000  troy  ounces  of  platinum 
per  year,  practically  all  coming  from  the  Quibdo  district.  The  high 
prices  prevailing  during  the  war  greatly  stimulated  the  production 
of  this  important  metal,  and  entire  districts  along  the  coast  and 
rivers  west  of  Cartagena  were  depopulated,  the  people  emigrating  to 
the  platinum  district  to  wash  for  platinum  gold. 

During  the  fiscal  year  of  1917-18  production  in  weight  of  metal 
fell  off  on  account  of  the  protracted  dry  season,  the  usual  heavy 
rains  of  the  Quibdo  region  not  materializing.     A  great  many  more 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      225 

people  were  engaged  in  the  work,  but  the  production  per  capita  was 
not  normal  with  relation  to  former  years,  when  prices  were  much 
lower.  Water  for  washing  the  metal  had  to  be  collected  during  the 
night  in  small  pits  dug  in  the  banks.  The  work  was  thus  made  much 
harder  and  considerable  time  was  lost. 

Plantains  and  dried  fish  are  the  staple  articles  of  food  of  the  Negro 
and  Indian  platinum  workers,  and  these  cost  10  times  more  in  the 
Quibdo  district  than  farther  down  the  Atrato  River,  the  main  source 
of  the  supply.  The  fixing  of  the  high  price  of  $105  per  ounce  for 
platinum  oy  the  United  States  Government  during  1918  greatly 
stimulated  the  work,  although,  because  of  the  weather  conditions  noted 
above,  the  total  production  was  not  proportionate  to  the  greatly 
increased  number  of  men  engaged  in  the  work. 

CARTAGENA  THE   SUPPLY  CENTER   OF  THE    QUIBDO   DISTRICT. 

The  Condoto  River  district  is  also  a  great  producer  of  platinum, 
but  it  is  of  an  alluvial  formation,  and,  on  account  of  the  broken  nature 
of  the  ground  and  the  heavy  jungle,  no  accurate  estimate  can  be 
made  of  the  possibilities  of  future  production  or  of  the  extent  of  the 

{)latinum-bearing  ground.  Doubtless  the  fields  are  much  more 
imited  in  extent  than  is  generally  supposed.  In  this  region  platinum 
predominates,  there  being  approximately  4  per  cent  of  ^old  found 
with  the  platinum,  while  on  the  Quibdo  side  gold  predominates,  the 
platinum  content  of  sands  being  only  about  10  per  cent.  Another 
producing  section  of  the  Quibdo  district  is  the  area  near  the  head- 
waters of  the  Quito  River,  which  is  being  worked  now  to  a  greater 
extent  then  ever  before. 

Cartagena  is  the  supply  center  of  the  Quibdo  region.  Approxi- 
mately $1,000,000  worth  of  imported  merchandise,  principally  cot- 
ton goods,  are  shipped  into  this  region  every  year  from  Cartagena. 
Probably  60  per  cent  of  this  amount  consists  oi  cheap  cotton  prints. 
The  large  importers  of  Cartagena  maintain  branch  houses  in  Quibdo 
and  Istmina,  Syrians  predominating.  Traders  travel  up  the  small 
rivers  in  canoes  with  trade  goods  and  buy  gold  and  platinum. 

The  Choco  district  is  said  to  contain  many  other  minerals,  such 
as  copper,  lead,  silver,  palladium,  etc.,  but  very  little  is  known  of 
the  real  extent  or  value  of  the  veins  or  deposits.  Many  rich  samples 
of  all  of  these  ores  have  been  brought  in  by  the  native  prospectors 
searching  for  gold  and  platinum. 

LABOR  AND   CLIMATE. 

The  labor  engaging  in  this  work  is  unsatisfactory.  After  working 
in  the  river  a  few  weeks  and  making  good  pay,  they  will  return  down 
the  river  for  the  remainder  of  the  season.  Although  as  many  as 
300,000  men  come  into  the  platinum  country  during  a  single  year,  not 
more  than  3,000  men  are  working  there  at  one  time.  The  climate  is 
very  unhealthful.  Several  large  companies  have  failed  in  attempts  to 
use  large  modem  dredgers  in  this  platinum  and  gold  placer  district. 

MANUFACTURING. 

Throughout  the  coast  region  there  is  an  increasing  interest  in 
local  manufacturing.  Extensive  plans  are  being  made  for  future 
development  as  soon  as  the  importation  of  new  machinery  and  equip- 

37558°— 21 15 


226     f.'OLOMBIA :   A   COMMERCIAL  AND   INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

ment  becomes  possible.  Textile  goods,  glass  and  earthenware, 
matches,  hats,  flour,  and  sugar  are  some  oi  the  principal  products 
in  this  commercial  district.  Probably  the  most  important  industrial 
establishment  is  the  Colombian  Sugar  Co.  with  a  capital  of  $2,000,000 
and  employing  from  3,000  to  5,000  men,  according  to  the  season. 
The  F&orica  de  Extractos  T&nicos  has  not  been  m  operation  for 
two  years,  because  of  the  lack  of  success  in  its  experiments  connected 
with  the  chemical  process  of  extraction  of  tannic  acid  from  the  bark 
of  the  mangle.  About  $200,000  is  the  estimated  capital  invested  in 
the  plant. 

EXPORTS. 

Statistics  showing  the  quantities  and  values  of  declared  exports 
from  Cartagena  to  tne  United  States  give  a  total  of  $9,823,635  for  the 
calendar  year  1919,  a  gain  of  $2,947,295  as  compared  with  1918, 
when  the  value  of  merchandise  exported  reached  $6,876,340.  Coffee 
forms  the  most  important  item,  40,490,072  pounds,  valued  at  $6,540,- 
558,  being  exported  in  1919.  Other  important  exports  were  cattle 
hides  valued  at  $1,038,516,  hats  at  $318,569,  and  rubber  at  $125,052. 

CURRENCY  AND  BANKING. 

The  actual  currency  is  inconvertible  paper,  gold  coin  based  on  the 
English  gold  coin  in  weight  and  fineness,  and  fractional  silver  coin. 
Exchange  rates  vary,  but  the  average  rate  during  1919  was  0.85. 
Rates  of  interest  are  about  2  per  cent  per  month.  However,  the  es- 
tablishment of  branches  of  American  banks  has  reduced  this  rate  to 
as  low  as  1 1  per  cent  per  year  in  some  cases. 

The  Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas  has  a  branch  in  Cartagena 
known  as  the  Banco  Mercantil  Americano  de  Colombia.  The  Banco 
de  Bolivar,  with  a  capital  of  500,000  Colombian  dollars,  and  the 
Banco  Industrial  with  a  capital  of  300,000  dollars,  are  located  here. 

MEDELLIN  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION.  TOPOGRAPHY.  AND  CLIMATE. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia,  situated  in  the  north-central  part 
of  Colombia,  is  the  largest  of  the  inhabited  Departments  of  the 
Republic,  possessing  an  area  of  24,401  square  miles.  Its  boundaries 
include  the  Gulf  of  Uraba  at  the  mouth  of  the  Atrato  River;  the 
Atrato  River  itself  for  a  distance  of  approximately  150  miles;  the 
Cauca  River  throughout  its  central  part,  as  well  as  its  tributaries, 
the  Nechi  and  San  Jorge;   and  the  Magdalena  River  on  the  east. 

The  entire  Department  is  a  mass  of  mountains  and  hills  with 
small  valleys  in  between.  Climate  in  such  a  region,  located  from  6 
to  7  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  is  a  matter  of  elevation  above  sea 
level.  The  entire  district  along  the  Magdalena  River  on  the  east  is 
tropical,  as  is  the  region  to  the  north  along  the  boundary  with  the 
Department  of  Bolivar,  where  there  is  a  much  more  abundant  rain- 
fall than  farther  south.  That  portion  of  the  Department  known 
as  the  Uraba  region,  which  extends  to  the  ocean  at  the  Gulf  of 
Uraba,  is  also  extremely  tropical.  The  valley  of  the  Cauca  River 
to  the  south,  where  the  elevation  above  sea  level  is  approximately 
3,000  feet,  has  a  semitropical  climate,  the  average  mean  temperature 


ECONOMIC   CHAKACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      227 

being  76°  F.  The  capital,  Medellin,  situated  in  the  south  at  the 
junction  of  four  mountain  ranges,  possesses  a  climate  of  perpetual 
spring,  and  health  conditions  are  found  to  be  much  better  in  this 
city  than  on  the  coast  at  Santa  Marta,  Barranquilla,  or  Cartagena. 
Almost  any  temperature  desired  may  be  found  by  climbing  into  the 
mountains  surrounding  the  city.  Tnere  are  no  well-defined  seasons, 
but  the  year  is  divided  into  two  wet  and  two  dry  periods  of  three 
months'  duration,  the  principal  rainy  season  beginning  withMarch. 


Pio.  10 — ^Map  of  Medellin  region. 
POPULATION  AND  RACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia,  with  a, population  of  817,530,  is 
divided  into  10  Provinces.  Medellin,  the  capital  of  the  Centro 
Province,  as  well  as  the  capital  of  the  Department,  possessed  a  popu- 
lation of  79,146  in  1918. 

It  is  said  that  the  people  of  Antioquia  are  the  descendants  of 
Snanish  Jews  who  emigrated  to  Colombia  during  dolonial  times. 
There  are  numerous  evidences  of  the  preservation  of  the  purity  of 
the  Spanish  race  even  among  the  lower  classes.  Few  Negroes  from 
the  coast  regions  are  seen,  although  to  some  extent  Indian  blood  and 
a  small  percentage  of  Negro  blood  have  been  absorbed. 


228    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

The  Antioqnofios  are  ^ood  workers  and  possess  a  great  deal  of 

f>erseveranco  and  ingenuity,  since  they  have  had  to  struggle  hard 
or  a  living.  Moreover,  they  are  good  business  men  and  very  shrewd 
traders.  One  very  remarkable  feature  found  here  is  the  great  in- 
dustry of  the  lower  classes  and  their  universal  desire  to  own  their 
own  property.  These  people  are  economical,  saving,  and  intelligent. 
In  the  city  of  Medellin  real  estate  has  been  sold  with  great  success 
on  the  installment  plan  to  laborers,  servants,  and  others  of  the  less 
•vyell-to-do  classes. 

LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

• 

Like  all  South  American  cities,  Medellin  presents  many  of  the  old 
colonial  features,  but  at  the  same  time  displays  modern  tendencies. 
Many  old  adobe  buildings  are  bein^  replaced  with  modem  concrete 
office  and  store  buildings  of  attractive  aesign,  and  there  is  an  active 
movement  for  improvements  of  all  sorts.  This  condition  is  apparent 
from  the  increasing  demand  for  more  and  better  lighting  fixtures, 
plumbing  fixtures,  electric  light  and  telephone  service,  and  steel 
products  of  all  kinds. 

The  wealthy  Antioqueno  lives  in  a  beautiful  house,  often  of  two 
stories,  and  provided  with  interior  gardens  where  open-air  baths  are 
built  into  the  ground  in  the  old  Roman  style.  The  interior  decora- 
tion is  more  European  than  American,  more  French  than  English, 
in  appearance  ana  effect.  In  contrast  to  the  comfort,  and  even 
luxury,  of  the  wealthy  merchants  and  professional  people,  is  the  life 
of  the  peon  who  usually  lives  in  a  tiny  one-room  house  built  of  mud 
blocks  situated  on  the  outskirts  of  the  town  or  in  the  valley  farming 
district,  with  no  comforts,  little  or  no  furniture  in  the  house,  and  no 
sanitary  provisions  whatever.  Relations  between  employer  and 
laborer  are  still  rather  feudal  and  founded  upon  the  old  Spanish 
system  of  peonage. 

EDUCATION. 

Medellin,  as  well  as  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  is  second  only 
to  Bogota  in  educational  advancement;  82  per  cent  of  the  factory 
and  industrial  workers  of  Medellin  can  read  and  write.  Out  of  a 
total  population  of  the  district  of  Medellin,  i.  e.,  the  municipality, 
there  were  in  1910  only  9,091  pupils  in  all  schools.  In  1918  this 
number  had  increased  to  12,530  out  of  a  total  population  for  the 
district  of  approximately  80,000  people,  according  to  the  census  of 
1918  (Oct.  12),  or  15.6  per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  inhabitants. 
This  figure  speaks  very  favorably  for  the  district  of  MedeUin. 

The  University  of  Antioquia  was  founded  in  1871  and  is  the  sec- 
ond largest  in  tne  country.  At  present  it  has  411  enrollments  in 
all  lines  of  study;  236  men  are  taking  philosophy  and  letters,  59  are 
enrolled  in  law  and  jurisprudence,  116  in  medicine;  and  there  are 
460  pupils  in  the  preparatory  Liceo  Antioqueno,  an  annex  of  the 
university.  Government  primary  schools  are  in  charge  of  the  de- 
partments, but  the  various  districts  and  municipalities  provide 
school  buildings  and  eouipment.  The  district  of  Medellin  has  re- 
cently completed  a  moael  school  in  which  all  modern  and  hygienic 
methods  are  embodied.  This  building  will  be  the  model  for  all  future 
school  buildings  in  the  distoict. 

The  National  Government  maintains  the  National  School  of 
Mines  at  Medellin.     The  latter  school  was  founded  in  1887,  com- 


ECONOMIC  CHAHACTERISTlCS  OF  NIKE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     22d 

plete  courses  being  taught  in  mining  and  civil  engineering.  In 
June,  1919,  80  pupils  were  in  attendance.  Normal  schools,  also,  are 
supported  by  the  National  Government.  The  MedellLu  Normal 
Scnool  had  97  men  and  238  women  enrolled  in  June. 

FINANCE  AND  BANKING. 

INFLUENCE    OF   LOCAL    GOLD    PRODUCTION. 

The  financial  situation  in  the  Department  of  Antioquia  is  different 
from  that  in  any  other  part  of  Colombia.  Antioquia  is  the  largest 
gold-producing  State,  an  average  of  $4,000,000  in  gold  being  pro- 
ducea  annually.  In  Medellin  gold  circulates  freely  and  all  trans- 
actions are  on  a  gold  basis.  This  was  especially  true  during  the 
year  1919.  With  New  York  exchange  fluctuating  between  .86  and 
.90,  and  the  pound  sterling  at  a  discount  of  20  per  cent  and  more, 
gold  was  not  exported  but  was  turned  in  at  the  local  Government  mint 
tor  coinage  into  Colombian  gold  coin.  This  gold  was  then  used  to 
purchase  New  York  drafts  at  the  prevailing  rate  of  exchange.  Also, 
during  the  latter  part  of  1918  and  the  first  half  of  1919,  more  than  $6,- 
000,000  in  United  States  gold  coin  was  imported  into  Colombia, 
and  the  greater  portion  of  this  amount  was  sent  to  Medellin  for 
coinage  into  Colombian  gold  coin,  the  difference  in  intrinsic  value 
as  compared  with  the  United  States  gold  coin  being  approximately 
2.75  per  cent.  As  a  result,  Antioquia  is  doing  business  with  gold 
coin  while  throughout  the  rest  of  the  country  very  little  gold  is 
seen  and  paper  money  of  various  kinds  forms  the  medium  of  ex- 
change. Another  factor  tending  to  hold  this  gold  in  Antioquia  is 
the  nigh  transportation  rates  on  specie  shipments  in  Colombia. 
Because  of  the  fact  that  Antioquia  has  always  produced  large  amounts 
of  gold,  with  gold  as  the  basis  of  exchange,  all  new  issues  of  Gov- 
ernment and  bank  paper  currency  have  been  looked  upon  with  sus- 
picion by  the  people  of  this  Department,  and  it  is  only  with  the 
greatest  difficulty  that  paper  currency  can  be  put  into  general  cu'- 
culation  in  this  district. 

COINAGE   CAPACITY   OF   MINT — CERTIFICATES   OF   GOLD   DEPOSITS. 

The  National  Mint  at  Medellin  posesses  a  complete,  though  small, 
electrolytic  plant,  and  improvements  made  in  1919  increased  the 
coinage  capacity  from  $500,000  in  gold  coin  to  $2,000,000,  with 
new  extensions  planned  that  will  make  it  possible  to  mint  $6,000,000 
worth  of  gold  coin  per  annum.  On  account  of  the  great  amount  of 
gold  presented  at  the  mint  for  coinage  into  Colombian  gold  coin, 
and  because  of  the  limited  capacity  of  the  mint,  the  expedieiit  has 
been  adopted  of  issuing  certificates  of  gold  deposits  in  small  denomi- 
nations in  order  to  make  the  commercial  use  of  this  gold  immediately 
available  for  holders  of  gold  awaiting  coinage.  The  certificates  of 
deposit  circulate  freely  and  are  everywhere  accepted  in  the  district, 
as  they  call  for  the  delivery  of  an  equal  amount  of  Colombian  gold 
coin  on  a  certain  date;  gold  delivered  to  the  mint  for  coinage  has  to 
await  its  turn. 


230     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

BANKS   AND    LOANS — EFFECT   OK    FOREIGN    BANKS   ON   TRADE. 

Ten  banks,  six  of  which  are  incorporated  and  four  private,  take 
care  of  the  financial  business  of  Medellin  and  its  commercial  district. 
The  average  net  profit  of  the  private  bankers  in  Medellin  is  approxi- 
mately 16  per  cent  per  annum,  and  previous  to  the  establishment  of 
foreign  bauKing  institutions  in  Medellin,  these  profits  were  very  much 
greater,  rates  of  interest  ranging  between  18  and  36  per  cent  per 
annum,  the  usual  quotations  oeing  by  the  month.  Private  money 
lenders  still  receive  2  per  cent  per  month  for  private  loans,  and  at 
times  even  a  higher  rate  of  interest  in  the  country  districts.  At 
present  the  average  commercial  rate  of  interest  is  18  per  cent. 
Recent  loans  have  oeen  made  to  the  Department  at  a  rate  as  low  as 
11  per  cent  per  annum,  whereas  formerly  the  Department  paid  as 
high  as  18  and  20  per  cent  for  money  with  which  to  finance  needed 

f)UDlic  works.     The  larger  merchants  can  also  now  secure  commercial 
oans  from  local  banks  for  six  months  and  one  year  at  rates  ranging 
from  11  to  15  per  cent. 

The  effect  on  trade  in  general  through  the  establishment  of  foreign 
banks  in  Medellin  has  been  very  beneficial.  Interest  rates  have 
gradually  been  lowered  and  all  commercial  transactions  facilitated. 

AMERICAN    BANKS   INVESTING   IN   INDUSTRIAL   PROJECTS. 

Progress  during  the  past  five  years  in  the  Medellin  district  has 
been  continuous  and  based  on  a  better  mutual  understanding.  The 
American  branch  banks  know  the  intimate  conditions  and  resources 
of  the  country,  and  are  in  a  position  to  act  as  intermediaries  in 
investment  and  industrial  propositions,  and  furnish  a  sure  basis  of 
international  confidence  and  mutual  respect.  In  fact,  they  have 
already  begun  to  assist  in  certain  projected  improvements.  As  an 
example  it  may  be  stated  that  the  oranch  of  a  large  American  bank- 
ing and  commercial  institution  loaned  the  Department  of  Antioquia 
the  sum  of  $40,000  gold  recently  with  which  to  cover  the  cost  of  the 
preliminary  engineering  study  of  various  new  projects.  This  money 
was  loaned  at  12  per  cent  interest  per  annum  at  10  months'  time. 
Previously  the  Department  of  Antioquia  borrowed  large  sums  locally 
at  18  per  cent  interest  per  annum.  Subsequently  this  same  banking 
concern  offered  the  Department  a  loan  of  $6,000,000  with  which  to 
carry  out  the  new  work  projected.  An  American  contracting 
company  has  had  a  representative  on  the  ground  for  the  purpose 
of  investigation,  and  tne  result  will  be  large  orders  for  material, 
machinery,  and  supplies. 

DEPARTMENTAL   REVENUES. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia  is  one  of  the  few  Departments  of 
Colombia  able  to  show  sufficient  revenue  over  and  aoove  current 
expenses  on  which  to  base  a  large  foreign  loan.  Never  has  it  been 
in  a  more  favorable  condition.  In  1917  revenue  for  the  Depart- 
ment amounted  to  1,939,359  Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0.9733 
United  States  currency);  in  1918  it  had  increased  to  2,069,318  dol- 
lars. During  the  first  four  months  of  1919  returns  were  663,056 
dollars.  The  month  of  June  alone  yielded  221,860  dollars.  Rev- 
enues for  the  city  of  Medellin  have  increased  correspondingly.     In 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     231 

1917  there  was  a  revenue  of  245,997  dollars,  in  1918  the  figures  given 
were  261,596  dollars,  while  the  first  four  months  of  1919  showed  a 
revenue  of  84,029  dollars.  The  sum  of  380,000  dollars  was  voted  by 
the  city  of  Medellin  for  improvements  during  1919  and  to  carry  out 
the  project  of  the  new  Municipal  Electric  Street  Railway. 

TENDENCY   TOWARD    SHORTER    CREDITS. 

In  Colombia  there  exists  no  system  of  discounts  and  trade  accept- 
ances, and,  prior  to  the  war,  foreign  trade  was  based  on  long  credit 
terms  with  the  foreign  export  commission  house  acting  as  banker. 
Since  the  bulk  of  trade  is  at  present  with  the  United  States,  both  for 
exports  and  imports,  the  tendency  is  toward  closer  commercial  and 
financial  relations  and  the  estabUshment  of  some  system  of  exchange 
with  shorter  credits  and  more  rapid  movement  of  merchandise,  m 
which  the  American  branch  banks  will  take  a  leading  part.  The 
great  difficulty  seems  to  be  the  scarcity  of  experienced  and  trained 
men  to  place  in  charge  of  these  important  brancn  banks.  The  educa- 
tion and  training  of  men  for  foreign  service  may  be  deemed  the  most 
important  feature  necessary  for  foreign  trade  expansion  in  Latin 
America. 

PRINCIPAL  CITIES  AND  COMMERCIAL  TERRITORY. 

Medellin  is  the  center  of  all  commercial  activity  for  the  Depart- 
ment of  Antioquia  and  the  commercial  territory  comprising  the 
mining  country  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Department  and  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Cauca  River  Valley  as  far  south  as  Cartago.  To  a  certain 
extent,  also,  the  Department  of  Caldas,  with  Manizales  as  its  center, 
is  commercially  tributary  to  Medellin,  though  the  bulk  of  the  import 
business  in  Manizales  is  handled  directly  with  foreign  markets 
through  export  and  import  commission  houses  which  have  their 
headquarters  in  MedeUin,  maintaining  branch  offices  in  Manizales. 
However,  merchandise  imported  for  the  market  in  the  Department 
of  Caldas  does  not  pass  through  Medellin,  but  continues  on  up  the 
Magdalena  River  to  La  Dorada,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  lower 
Magdalena,  thence  by  rail  over  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway  to 
Maric^uita,  where  goods  are  transferred  to  the  cableway  built  over 
the  high  mountains  and  now  completed  almost  as  far  as  the  city  of 
Manizales. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia  contains  35  towns  of  10,000  people 
or  more,  and  the  whole  commercial  territory  of  MedeUin  reaches  over 
2,000,000  people  of  Colombia.  The  merchants  of  Antioquia  are 
actively  engaged  in  expanding  their  trade  with  the  interior,  and 
traders  from  Medellin  are  found  in  the  least  accessible  re^ons,  even 
as  far  west  as  the  platinum-mining  country  of  the  Rio  Atrato. 
However,  it  is  thought  that  Medelhn  can  not  compete  with  Carta- 
gena in  the  Rio  Atrato  trade  because  of  transportation  difficulties, 
Cartagena  having  direct  communications  by  water,  while  goods  for 
MedellLn  have  to  be  brought  up  the  Magdalena  River  to  Puerto 
Berrio,  thence  to  Medellin  oy  rail,  from  which  place  they  are  sent 
into  the  interior  on  pack  mules  and  pack  oxen. 

The  town  of  Puerto  Berrio  is  the  river  port  for  the  Department 
of  Antioquia.  All  goods  shipped  into  Medellin  from  the  coast  pass 
through  it.  The  town  itself  is  unattractive  and  presents  the  usual 
aspect  of  Magdalena  River  towns — low,  one-story  "adobe"  houses 


232     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

with  thatched  roofs;  narrow,  unpaved  streets;  and  the  usual  river 

¥opulation,  consisting  principally  of  Negroes  and  "mestizo"  Indians, 
here  is  little  agriculture  in  the  vicinity,  with  the  exception  of  small 
banana  and  yucca  patches  for  the  local  market;  the  principal  em- 
ployment is  stevedoring  work  for  the  river  steamers  and  railway. 
The  inhabitants  number  about  2,500.  Low  hills  surround  the  town 
and  the  vegetation  is  tropical,  with  rather  heavy  undergrowth. 
There  is  little  good  level  land  in  si^ht.  While  the  town  has  a  small 
electric  light  plant  and  a  small  ice  factory,  there  are  no  public 
improvements  except  the  railway  freight  sheds  and  track  work  and 
the  Hotel  Magdalena. 

On  account  of  the  greatly  varying  stages  of  the  river,  the  swift 
current,  and  other  adverse  factors  nothing  has  been  done  at  Puerto 
Berrio  to  provide  docks  or  landing  stages  for  river-traffic  service. 
All  freight  is  handled  up  and  down  the  steep  bank  of  the  river  on  men's 
backs,  the  distance  in  extreme  low-water  stage  being  nearly  250  yards 
from  the  nearest  railway  storage  shed.  As  a  part  of  the  railway's 
equipment  there  is  a  good  hand-power  crane  on  the  end  of  a  spur  track 
near  the  river  for  handling  heavy  cargo  packages.  This  crane  is  the 
only  modern  facility  in  Puerto  Berrio  for  freight-handling  purposes 
ana  is  seldom  used. 

MANUFACTURING. 

The  greatest  industrial  development  in  Colombia  is  found  in  the 
Department  of  Antioquia.  In  spite  of  the  broken  nature  of  the 
country,  with  the  resulting  difficulties  in  transportation,  this  Depart- 
ment will  undoubtedly  continue  to  lead  other  districts  in  manufac- 
turing, even  though  raw  materials,  with  the  exception  of  cotton,  must 
be  imported. 

The  development  of  local  industry  is  due  to  two  factors :  First,  the 
energetic  and  active  character  of  the  Antioquian  people;  and  second, 
the  tariff  measures  of  the  Government  which  protect  national  indus- 
tries. At  present  the  volume  of  production  of  local  manufactures 
supplies  but  a  fraction  of  the  demand;  consequently,  on  account  of 
the  protective  tariffs,  the  prices  of  foreign-made  goods  naturally  fix 
the  prices  for  articles  of  domestic  manufacture,  the  result  being  that 
prices  remain  ver}^  high  for  all  goods  needed  in  the  country,  whether 
loreign  or  domestic,  and  manufacturers  make  good  profits. 

COTTON    MILLS. 

Cotton  prints  constitute  the  principal  article  of  import  into  Co- 
lombia, averaging  about  60  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  all  goods 
imported  into  the  country.  It  is  therefore  in  this  line  that  there 
has  been  the  greatest  development  in  local  and  national  manufac- 
turing. 

Local  cotton  mills  are  competing  successfully  with  foreign  mills, 
although  the  former  have  not  improved  the  quality  or  appearance 
of  the  cloth  manufactured.  However,  the  material  is  strong  and 
wears  well  and  is  well  liked  in  the  country.  Under  present  condi- 
tions of  the  market  there  is  no  necessity  lor  local  mills  to  improve 
their  product.  Prices  are  high  and  the  total  production  is  sold 
without  trouble. 

All  local  mills  are  very  prosperous  notwithstanding  the  high  cost 
of  imported  raw  material,  high  freight  rates,  and  great  cost  of  new 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     233 

machinery,  repair  and  replacement  parts,  etc.  Dividends  of  14  per 
cent  net  are  bein^  paid  on  stock  in  these  mills  held  locally,  and  all 
mills  were  plannmg  extensive  improvements  during  1919.  The 
time  seems  opportune  to  do  some  selling  work  among  the  Colombian 
mill  people.  The  mills  that  are  now  importing  cotton  yam  for  their 
looms  are  ordering  spinning  machinery  with  which  to  make  yam  of 
the  native  cotton  from  the  coast  section;  dyeing  plants,  too,  are 
being  installed  in  many  places. 

During  the  war  dealers  could  not  secure  enough  textiles  to  supply 
the  demand ;  prices  were  very  high,  and  as  a  result  the  public  refused 
to  purchase  freely,  waiting  for  better  conditions.  During  this  time 
the  domestic  mills  supplied  the  bulk  of  the  local  demand  at  war 
prices.  All  merchants  feared  an  imminent  drop  in  prices  of  im- 
ported goods,  and  almost  without  exception  tried  to  dispose  of  large 
stocks  of  textiles  on  a  stagnant  market,  but  with  little  success.  The 
market  for  textiles  reacted  in  June,  191*9,  and  merchants  finally 
became  convinced  that  the  local  and  interior  demand  was  active  again 
and  that  a  business  boom  was  in  progress.  They  realized  also  that 
they  were  without  adequate  stocks  of  goods  with  which  to  take  care 
of  the  trade.  The  result  was  precipitate  buying  in  all  lines,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  business  (estimated  at  over  90  per  cent  of  the  total)  went 
to  New  York.  Strange  to  say,  this  buying  activity  was  initiated, 
not  from  large  centers,  such  as  Medellin  and  Bogota,  where  the  larger 
importing  houses  would  naturally  be  expected  to  take  the  lead  in  any 
great  commercial  movement,  but  from  interior  towns,  such  as  Call, 
Bucaramanga,  Ocana,  etc.,  and  this  activity  stimulated  the  larger 
importers  to  action. 

In  Medellin,  old  resident  English  houses,  which  handled  Man- 
chester textiles  for  many  years  and  enjoyed  the  bulk  of  the  Antioquia 
trade,  were  obliged  to  seek  new  business  relations  in  the  United 
States  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  market  conditions. 

Besides  textiles,  there  is  a  strong  demand  for  hardware  and  cutlery, 
formerly  imported  from  Europe,  and  also  chinaware,  cooking  uten- 
sils, and  glassware,  the  last  two  lines  being  almost  entirely  imported 
from  Europe  prior  to  the  war. 

Because  of  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  country  on  account  of 
the  coffee  market  and  the  high  prices  being  obtained  for  exports  of  all 
kinds,  there  is  also  a  strong  demand  for  women's  fancy- wear  goods, 
dress  goods,  haberdashery,  etc.  Better  quality  and  more  varied  lines 
are  wanted  than  heretofore  has  been  the  case  in  Colombia. 

OTHER   INDUSTRIAL    ESTABLISHMENTS. 

Besides  the  8  or  10  textile  factories  located  in  or  near  Medellin, 
other  important  industrial  establishments  are  situated  there.  The 
Fabrica  N  acional  de  Galletas  y  Confites  (cracker  and  candy  factory) , 
established  in  Medellin  in  1915  with  a  capital  of  600,000  dollars,  is  very 
modern  in  every  way.  Products  are  sold  all  over  the  country  and 
are  competing  with  imported  bonbons  and  crackers,  which  they  are 
steadily  replacing  in  the  Colombian  market  because  of  the  high 
import  duty  and  freight  rates.  This  factory  represents,  doubtless, 
the  most  definite  case  in  which  a  local  industry  has  replaced  the  im- 
ported article  in  Colombia.  Another  example  of  the  replacing  of 
foreign  merchandise  in  the  Colombian  market  is  porcelain.     T'he 


234    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

factory  is  located  in  the  town  of  Caldas,  on  the  Amaga  Railway. 
The  company  was  originaUy  promoted  by  a  German,  who  utihzed 
the  deposits  of  white  and  gray  clay,  quartz  sands,  feldspar,  etc., 
found  near  the  town  of  Caldas.  In  recent  years  results  have  been 
very  satisfactory.  At  present  60  men  are  constantly  employed,  and 
only  coloring  materials  and  certain  small  amounts  of  flux  materials 
are  imported.  The  products  enter  all  parts  of  the  country  and  com- 
pete with  the  imported  article.  Present  sales  are  approximately 
$150,000  per  year,  and  plans  are  being  perfected  for  large  extensions 
in  the  near  future.  The  company  is  in  the  market  for  new  baking 
ovens,  new  grinding  mills,  automatic  sizers,  screens,  etc.  Another 
porcelain  factory  has  been  recently  formed  in  Medellin,  with  a  capital 
of  30,000  Colombian  dollars,  to  develop  rich  deposits  of  clay,  feld- 
spar, etc.,  near  the  town  of  Puebhto. 

Other  factories  that  are  producing  articles  in  local  demand  are 
F&brica  Nacional  de  Camisas  y  Cuellos  de  Medellin  (shirts  and  col- 
lars); Compania  Nacional  de  Manufactures  de  Medellin  (corsets); 
besides  several  cigarette  factories,  match  factories,  soda  and  mineral- 
water  factories,  etc.  Most  of  the  raw  material  used  is  imported  from 
the  United  States.  Tobacco  for  the  cigarette  factories  is  imported 
from  the  United  States,  Cuba,  and  the  Department  of  Santander 
del  Sur  in  Colombia. 

FORMATION    OP   NEW   COMPANY   TO    MANUFACTURE    FIBER   BAGS. 

In  Jime,  1919,  a  company  was  being  formed  in  Medellin  to  make 
fiber  coffee  bags.  Jute  bags  were  formerly  imported  from  England 
for  handling  the  coffee  harvests  for  export.  During  the  war  this 
material  could  not  be  obtained  and  sacks  were  manufactured  locally 
from  *'fique"  fiber,  as  the  native  henequen  is  called.  The  bags  are 
being  made  by  hand,  the  raw  material  or  cleaned  fiber  costing  about 
12  cents  gold  per  pound  of  500  grams  delivered  in  Medellin.  How- 
ever, fiber-cleaning  machines  are  now  being  made  near  Medellin  by 
local  foundries  and  machine  shops.  The  company  plans  to  use  mod- 
em machinery,  but  up  to  June  suitable  machinerv  for  making  the 
bags  of  this  kind  of  fiber  had  not  been  found  in  the  United  States. 
The  present  cost  of  fique  bags  is  $1.12  per  "carga"  of  two  sacks, 
whicn  contain  140  pounds  of  coffee  each.  Before  the  war  Colombia 
imported  annually  approximately  1,000,000  yards  of  jute  piece  goods 
from  the  United  Kingdom  and  $225,000  worth  of  jute  bags. 

IRON   INDUSTRY   OF   ANTIOQUIA. 

In  view  of  the  increasing  demand  for  certain  machinery  used  in 
domestic  industry,  the  development  of  foundries  and  macmne  shops 
in  Antioquia  would  seem  to  be  of  primary  importance  as  a  local  and 
national  industry.  There  are  four  of  these  in  the  Department  at 
present.  The  Ferrerla  de  Amaga  is  one  of  the  oldest.  Its  present 
volume  of  business  amounts  to  about  $200,000  per  year.  No  scientific 
report  has  ever  been  made  on  the  extent  and  formation  of  the  avail- 
able iron-ore  deposits,  although  surface  indications  show  a  lai^e 
formation,  well  defined  and  entirely  accessible,  with  easy  mining 
conditions. 

The  ore  most  used  is  that  called  "mineral  de  huevo,"  or  egg  ore. 
This  ore  is  the  most  common  and  is  picked  up  by  hand  from  the  sur- 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.     235 

face.     No  mining  operations  have  ever  been  undertaken  either  by 
the  old  company  or  oy  the  present  owners. 
It  would  seem  as  if  these  deposits  were  of  value  and  capable  of 

greater  development  and  exploitation  under  scientifically  trained 
irection.  Prices  will  always  remain  very  high  on  account  of  the 
high  freight  rates  on  all  machinery  and  steel  products  from  the  coast. 
Local  dealers  figure  over  90  per  cent  for  expense  of  freight  and  duty 
on  all  iron  products  from  the  United  States  on  first  cost,  f.  o.  b. 
New  York,  and  then  add  a  handsome  profit  over  and  above  these 
figures.  Labor  is  plentiful,  as  well  as  cheap  and  good;  water  power 
is  immediately  available  on  the  ground  at  little  expense. 

The  Empresa  de  Refundicion  de  Metales,  located  near  Medellin 
on  the  Amaga  Railway,  imports  pig  iron.  It  makes  agricultural  im- 
plements, such  as  hoes,  machetes,  plowshares,  etc.  A  third  foundry, 
the  Ferreria  de  Joaquin  Restrepo  Izaza,  at  Sonson,  also  imports  pig 
iron  besides  using  that  of  the  country.  Coffee  and  mining  ma- 
chinery are  its  chief  products.  The  foundry  and  machine  shop  called 
"La  Estrella,"  located  at  Robledo,  was  established  in  1900  with  an 
initial  capital  of  120,000  Colombian  dollars.  Pig  iron  is  imported 
from  the  United  States,  the  price  f .  o.  b.  New  York  in  May  being  S28.55 
per  ton  of  2,240  pounds.  This  pig  iron  costs  12  cents  per  kilo,  or  5  cents 
per  pound,  laid  down  in  Medellin,  plus  cartage  to  the  factory  at  Robledo, 
4  kilometers  distant  from  the  Medellin  Railway  station.  Machinery 
of  all  kinds  for  the  coffee  industry  as  well  as  the  tobacco,  rubber, 
cacao,  and  fiber  industries,  sugar-cane  mills,  Pelton  water  wheels, 
church  clocks,  etc.,  are  products  of  this  foundry  and  machine  shop. 
An  average  price  of  60  cents  per  kilo  is  received  for  all  castings 
turned  out.  These  are  clean  and  free  from  defects;  edges  are  sharp, 
and  crystallization  is  very  uniform. 

TOTAL   INVESTMENT   IN   PLANTS — LABOR   SUPPLY   AND   CONDITIONS, 

In  1918  the  Department  of  Antioquia  possessed  a  total  capital  of 
3,190,000  Colombian  dollars,  invested  m  32  plants.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  there  will  be  an  increase  of  1,100,000  dollars  for 
1919  and  1920.  The  textile  plants  and  existing  factories  will 
be  chiefly  affected.  There  can  be  no  question  of  the  indus- 
trial development  of  Antioquia  or  that  this  region  is  rapidly 
becoming  the  principal  manufacturing  center  of  Colombia,  how- 
ever handicapped  it  may  be  by  the  mountainous  nature  of  the 
country  and  tne  lack  of  good  transportation  facilities.  Many  plans 
and  projects  are  being  worked  out  for  the  near  future,  and  the  pros- 
perous condition  of  the  country  will  evidently  stimulate  and  advance 
this  development  during  the  next  few  years. 

Approximately  6,000  people  are  employed  in  manufacturing  plants 
of  all  kinds  in  Medellin  and  its  suburbs,  and  there  is  a  surplus  of 
labor.  Women  especially  are  seeking  work  in  factories  where  piece- 
work is  the  system  for  operating.  All  local  cotton  factories  employ 
this  system.  Most  of  the  larger  mills  run  10  hours  per  day,  com- 
paratively few  factories  working  only  9  hours.  Little  time  is  lost 
from  work,  the  average  attendance  being  over  91  per  cent.  Factory 
managers  state  that  the  people  are  very  quick  in  learning  to  handle 
new  machinery  and  can  be  trusted  witn  delicate  mechanisms.  The 
women  earn  n"om  30  to  60  cents  per  day,  the  average  wage  being 


236    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

about  33  cents.     Men  earn  from  30  cents  to  $1.30  per  day,  the  latter 
wage  being  that  of  the  most  skilled  mechanic. 

RAILWAYS. 

There  are  two  railways  in  the  Department  of  Antioquia.  The 
more  important  of  these  is  the  Ferrocarril  de  Antioquia  (Antioquia 
Railway),  connecting  Puerto  Berrio,  on  the  Magdalena  River,  with 
Medellin,  the  capital  of  the  Department,  a  distance  of  120  miles. 
It  is  operated  in  two  unconnected  divisions,  the  Nus  division,  from 
Puerto  Berrio  to  Cisneros,  and  the  Porce  division,  from  Santiago 
to  Medellin.  The  La  Quiebra  Mountain  separates  Cisneros  and 
Santiago,  which  are  9  miles  apart;  present  means  of  travel  between 
them  is  by  wagon  road  over  this  mountain,  at  5,080  feet  above 
sea  level.  All  miports  and  exports  into  Medellin  and  the  interior 
of  the  Department  of  Antioquia  pass  over  this  road.  The  Depart- 
ment has  planned  a  tunnel  under  the  mountain  which  wUl  be  ap- 
proximately 12,250  feet  in  length,  and  an  electric  line  over  it  is  also 
talked  of. 

One  is  impressed  by  the  excellent  construction'  work,  the  heavy 
cuts,  the  fine  rock-ballasted  roadbed  laid  with  hardwood  ties  of  over- 
size for  narrow-gauge  track,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  Antio- 
r'a  Railway.  The  gauge  is  36  inches,  and  60-pound  rails  are  used 
oughout,  being  necessary  because  of  the  short  curves  and  heavy 
grades  encountered.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  this  line  passes  through 
a  very  mountainous  region,  returns  show  that  each  new  5  kilometers 
of  line  have  paid  for  the  construction  of  5  more.  The  road  has 
doubled  its  traffic  every  five  years,  and  is  at  the  present  time  in  a 
very  prosperous  condition.  Freight  rates  have  been  lowered  con- 
sistently. 

The  Nus  division  operates  93  freight  cars  of  various  types  and  ca- 
pacities, and  the  Porce  division  has  58.  The  locomotives  are  of  the 
small  25  and  30  ton  Mogul  type,  and  on  the  Nus  division  they  bum 
wood  for  fuel.  The  Porce  division  uses  coal,  which  is  brought  into 
Medellin  from  the  Amaga  fields  by  the  Ferrocarril  de  Amaga  (Amaga 
Railway) . 

The  Amaga  Railway  runs  south  from  Medellin  toward  the  town 
of  Amaga.  The  Cauca  River  is  the  objective.  The  road  has  shown 
an  annual  increase  of  business  according  as  new  sections  of  line  have 
been  put  into  operation  by  the  companv.  Gross  returns  in  1918  were 
183,643  Colomoian  dollars.  From  the  returns  of  the  first  four 
months  of  1919,  which  were  72,207  dollars,  it  is  estimated  that 
figures  for  the  year  will  reach  214,000  or  possibly  240,000 
dollars.  Owners  of  the  line  claim  that  it  is  the  key  to  transpor- 
tation in  Antioquia.  Once  this  road  is  completed  by  connecting 
Medellin  with  the  end  of  navigation  on  the  upper  Cauca  River 
north  of  Cali,  the  Department  of  Antioquia  will  have  an  outlet  also 
on  the  Pacific  coast  through  Cali  to  Buenaventura. 

The  Amaga  Railway  passes  through  extensive  coal  beds,  which  are 
found  on  the  western  watershed  after  passing  "La  Quiebra."  In 
several  places  the  railway  cuts  pass  through  three  horizontal  strata 
of  coal.  Locomotives  can  thus  be  fired  at  the  tracks.  In  the  valley 
one  coal  property  alone  is  said  to  contain  5,000,000  tons  of  coal.  It 
is  bituminous  in  character,  very  light,  and  highly  volatile,  from  45  to 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  206. 


•V  T* 


FIG.  11.— MEDELLIN  STATION  OF  ANTIOQUIA  RAILWAY. 


FIG.  12.— MEDELLIN  STATION  OF  AMAGA  RAILWAY. 


Special  Agent  Series  No.  206. 


FIG.  13.— PLAZO   BERRIO,    MEDELLIN. 


FIG.  14.— HOTEL  MAGDALENA,   PUERTO  BERRIO. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      237 

60  per  cent  gas.  The  cost,  delivered  in  Medellin,  cartage  from  rail- 
way station  paid,  is  $4  per  ton.  The  cost  to  the  railway  at  the  coal 
beds  does  not  exceed  $0.65  per  ton  mined  and  sacked  on  flat  cars. 
Although  this  coal  will  not  coke,  a  coking  grade  can  be  found  just  north 
of  Medellin  on  the  Antioquia  Railway.  Mining  operations  are  car- 
ried on  in  the  most  primitive  manner,  the  mines  bemg  mere  one-man 
incline  shafts  and  tne  coal  being  carried  out  on  men's  backs.  No 
scientific  examination  has  ever  been  made  of  these  tioal  beds,  and  no 
data  as  to  their  extent  or  value  are  available.  It  is  believed,  however, 
that  the  supply  is  large  enough  to  furnish  all  the  needs  of  transporta- 
tion and  industry  in  Antioquia  for  hundreds  of  years. 

Three  routes  are  being  studied  for  the  new  projected  railway  to  the 
Gulf  of  Uraba.  The  Departmental  Assembly  authorized  the  govern- 
ment to  contract  for  a  loan  of  $6,000,000  with  which  to  start  tnis  new 
railway,  as  well  as  to  finance  other  construction  work,  and  the  money 
has  already  been  offered  by  an  American  banking  concern. 

Still  another  road  on  which  preliminary  work  is  being  done  is  from 
Puerto  Berrio  across  the  Magdalena  River  toward  the  southeast  in 
the  general  direction  of  Chiquinquira.  The  line  will  pass  through  the 
town  of  Velez  in  Santander,  continuing  on  to  the  plains  of  Sogamoso 
in  Boyaca,  with  the  object  of  developing  this  region  of  cattle  raising 
and  wheat  production.  This  new  line  is  the  result  of  an  agreement 
between  the  Departments  of  Antioquia,  Boyaca,  and  Santander  del 
Sur,  and  the  surveys  are  under  the  direction  of  the  Department  of 
Antioquia,  whose  engineers  are  now  carrying  out  the  preliminary 
survey  work.  The  business  element  of  Antioquia  is  very  much  inter- 
ested in  this  new  railway,  since  it  will  open  a  new  field  for  the  prod- 
ucts of  Antioquia  and  also  provide  access  to  the  wheat  and  cattle 
lands  of  Boyaca,  wheat  and  cattle  being  two  products  most  needed 
in  Antioquia. 

RIVER  NAVIGATION. 

Three  navigable  rivers  serve  the  Department  of  Antioquia.  In  the 
rainv  seasons  river  steamers  drawing  4  feet  of  water  (loaded)  navigate 
the  ^agdalena  as  far  as  Puerto  Berrio,  but  for  several  months  at  a 
time  river  navigation  is  very  uncertain,  even  for  the  smaller  boats. 

The  Cauca  River  is  a  tributary  of  the  Magdalena  and  is  navigable 
for  200-ton  river  steamers  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Department  as 
far  as  Caceres;  and  irregular  service  is  maintained  there  during  the 
rainy  season.  This  river  service  benefits  the  mining  and  cattle  inter- 
ests in  the  northern  part  of  Antioquia,  although  the  traffic  is  not  very 
heavy  and  is  more  or  less  local  in  character. 

A  regular  steamer  service  is  maintained  between  Magangue,  on 
the  Magdalena  River,  and  the  town  of  Zaragoza,  on  the  Nechi  River, 
a  tributary  of  the  Cauca. 

AGRICULTURE. 

COFFEE.  ^ 

The  Department  of  Antioquia  produces  an  average  of  18,000 
tons  of  coffee  annually,  the  extent  of  the  plantations  being  esti- 
mated at  approximately  63,250  acres,  containing  possibly  36,000,000 
coffee  trees,  valued  at  30  cents  each.  Production  in  this  Depart- 
ment has  practically  tripled  since  1910,  when  Antioquia  exported 
100,341   sacks  of   145  pounds  each.     Production  in  1915  increased 


238     COLOMBIA:   A   (.'OMMERCIAL   AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

to  192,807  sacks,  in  1916  to  273,175,  while  it  was  estimated  that  the 
Department  would  export  a  total  of  300,000  sacks  in  1919, 

The  average  cost  oi  freight  and  other  charges  on  Antioquia  coffee 
is  $0.08  per  pound  hy  the  time  the  coffee  reaches  New  York  and 
is  delivered  to  warehouses  there.  All  coffee  quotations  are  made 
f.  o.  b.  New  York  in  United  States  currency  per  pound.  Colombian 
producers  or  buyers  receive  or  pay  Colombian  currency  for  all  coffee, 
and  in  Antioquia  payment  was  made  in  gold  coin  to  a  great  degree 
during  the  early  part  of  1919.  Exchange  averaged  around  $0.85 
during  the  spring  months  and  then  slowly  advanced  to  $0.94  and  to 
$0.95  m  Jime. 


"Panela"  or  brown  sugar  is  not  exported  from  the  country,  but 
large  quantities  are  shipped  into  the  interior.  In  1918  the  Depart- 
ment of  Antiociuia  produced  3,366,656  "arrobas"  (of  25  pounds 
each),  or  a  total  of  84,166,400  pounds,  according  to  statistics  com- 
piled by  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  of  Medellin.  The  principal 
centers  of  "panela"  production  are:  Medellin,  Cocoma,  JBarbosa, 
Sonson,  and  i  olombo,  though  sugar  cane  is  grown  throughout  the 
entire  Department  in  many  small  patches.  Water  is  everywhere 
available  lor  irrigation,  the  mountains  having  numerous  springs  and 
small  streams. 

There  are  no  large  sugar  estates  or  modem  sugar  mills  in  the 
Department.  In  1916,,  4,887  small  sugar  mills  were  in  existence 
there,  the  greater  proportion  of  which  were  made  by  hand,  of  wood. 
The  following  statement  shows  the  motive  power:  Small  hand  power, 
2,486  mills;  oxen  or  mule  power,  1,650  mills;  water  power,  744  mills; 
other  power,  7  mills. 

A  considerable  number  of  small  foreign-made  iron  mills  called 
"trapiches"  have  been  imported,  which  are  carried  in  stock  by  all 
hardware  dealers.  Local  foundries  and  machine  shops  are  now  pro- 
ducing these  small  sugar-cane  mills  as  standard  articles. 

RICE — TOBACCO — WHEAT — BEANS. 

Rice  and  tobacco  are  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Depart- 
ment, where  there  is  more  level  land  and  a  tropical  climate.  These 
regions  are  sparsely  inhabited,  since  the  Antioquian  prefers  the  cooler 
climate  of  the  hills  and  mountains.  In  1915  the  Department  pro- 
duced 15,331  cargas  (carga  =  280  pounds)  or  4,292,680  pounds  of  rice, 
but  even  this  amount  was  not  sufficient  to  supply  the  demand,  and 
the  coast  and  the  United  States  furnished  the  remainder.  Tobacco 
also  was  imported,  the  864,257  pounds  produced  by  the  Department 
not  being  enough  for  the  factories.  Wheat  was  imported  from 
Bogota  to  supply  the  Department,  since  only  2,205  cargas  were  pro- 
duced in  1915.  Beans  are  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply 
domestic  needs.         / 

CATTLE  RAISING. 

Official  statistics  compiled  in  May,  1919,  give  the  total  number  of 
cattle  in  the  Department  as  415,418  four  years  old  or  over.  It  is 
estimated  that  there  are  46,666  hectares,  or  115,311  acres,  under  fence 
and  planted  with  Para,  guinea,  ''India,"  and  "Yaragua"  grass 
(all  similar  to  the  Para  grass)  in  the  Department.     The  small  native 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     239 

cattle  are  also  pastured  on  the  short  grass  of  the  hills  and  mountains 
of  the  interior  regions.  These  cattle  are  a  very  poor  breed,  not  over 
600  pounds  on  the  hoof.  Approximately  70,000  head  of  cattle  are 
imported  every  year  from  the  coast,  principally  from  Bolivar,  and 
are  fattened  for  market  in  the  Cauca  Valley.  It  is  said  that  there 
is  hardly  a  merchant  of  Medellin  who  does  not  own  a  cattle  ranch 
in  this  rich  region.  A  cattle  pasture  planted  in  para  grass  of  four 
years'  growth  is  valued  in  Medellin  at  $70  per  hectare  (1  hectare  = 
2.471  acres).  All  cattle  throughout  the  Department  are  subject  to 
the  diseases  peculiar  to  the  country  and  have  to  be  inoculated  with 
cattle  and  stock  serum;  consequently  there  is  an  excellent  market 
for  stock  serums,  hypodermic-injection  syringes,  and  other  appliances 
needed. 

MINING. 

Mining  is  the  oldest  industry  of  the  Department,  and  countless 
small  streams  show  evidences  of  old  placer  operations  throughout 
the  Department.  The  most  accessible  and  easily  worked  ground  has 
been  exploited  by  the  Spaniards  and  natives,  who  are  good  placer 
miners  and  expert  surface  prospectors.  Some  of  the  rich  gold  mines 
pay  handsome  dividends  in  spite  of  the  crude  methods  employed. 

There  is  evidently  an  opportunity  for  development  by  large  min- 
ing companies  in  taking  up  old  low-grade  properties  or  dredging 
ground  and  installing  modern  machinery  to  conduct  extraction  where 
the  old  crude  methods  have  failed.  However,  operations  would  be 
very  expensive  because  of  transportation  difficulties.  The  war  cur- 
tailed the  shipping  of  machinery  and  equipment,  but  new  projects 
are  in  prospect  as  soon  as  conditions  become  normal  again. 

MERCHANDISE  MOST  IN  DEMAND  IN  MEDELUN. 

Because  of  the  heavy  exports  of  coflFee  already  mentioned,  great 
expansion  of  business  is  expected  during  the  next  few  years,  and  all 
lines  are  extremely  active.  Transactions  are  almost  invariably  in 
cash,  i.  e.,  New  York  exchange  in  hand,  and  New  York  prices  rule 
in  the  market. 

The  following  table  shows  the  relative  volume  of  imports  from  the 
United  States  hy  articles  most  in  demand,  there  being  no  old  Euro- 
pean merchandise  in  stock  in  Medellin  at  the  time  the  present  report 
was  written: 


Articles. 


Textiles 

Hardware 

Steel  products. . 

Chemicals 

Medicines 

Paper  products 

Machinery 

Kitchen  ware.. 

Tools,  etc 

Dyes 


Percentaee 

from  United 

States. 


60 
100 
100 
100 

90 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


Articles. 


Typewriters,  specialties. 

Musical  instruments 

Hats  (felt) 

Men's  wear 

Women 's  fancy  wear . . . 

Toilet  articles 

Shoes 

Jewelry,  watches,  etc... 
China,  dishes 


Percentage 

from  United 

States. 


100 

100 
40 
90 
75 
80 

100 
40 

100 


Note.— Percentages  given  are  approximate  and  are  for  Medellin  market  only.  Great  Britain  is  the 
chief  competitor  in  textiles  and  men's  wear,  Italy  in  bats,  and  France  in  women's  wear,  toilet  articles, 
and  Jewelry. 


240     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
METHODS  OF  DISTRIBUTION. 

The  importing  business  of  the  Medellin  commercial  district  has 
always  been  carried  on  through  commission  houses  which  take  care 
of  orders  for  all  kinds  of  merchandise.  Heretofore  the  amount  of 
business  has  been  too  limited,  except  in  textiles,  to  enable  the  Colom- 
bian importer  to  deal  directly  witn  manufacturers.  Moreover,  the 
American  market  has  not  been  sufficiently  well  known.  Therefore, 
the  Colombian  importer  relies  upon  his  commission  house  in  New  York 
to  fill  his  orders,  make  shipments,  and  take  care  of  all  details  of 
the  business.  Several  of  these  houses  established  in  New  York 
have  ample  capital;  'agencies  are  maintained  in  Manizales,  Cali, 
Bucaramanga,  and  even  in  Bogota,  and  they  are  doing  the  most 
business  with  Colombian  merchants.  These  native  export  houses 
have  the  advantage  of  knowing  the  country,  the  credit  rating  of 
their  clients,  and  all  market  and  credit  requirements.  They  also 
act  as  agents  for  the  handling  of  all  articles  of  export  from  Colombia, 
and  do  a  private  banking  business  in  connection  with  merchandising. 

The  maintaining  of  resident  agents  is  an  important  factor  in  the 
future  of  American  export  trade.  European  houses  have  maintained 
such  commercial  organizations,  which  have  been  very  successful  in 
securing  and  holding  trade  for  these  countries.  Agencies  of  groups 
of  manufacturers  operating  under  the  Webb-Pomerene  law  might 
well  be  established  m  Colombia.  Under  no  circumstances,  however, 
should  retailing  be  attempted  by  these  agencies,  but  the  importing 
native  merchants  should  be  protected  and  assisted  in  everv  possible 
way.  The  work  of  these  resident  agencies  then  would  be  to  sell 
goods  to  importers,  or  even  to  carry  standard  stocks  of  goods.  Highly 
trained  and  experienced  men  should  be  required  as  managers  of 
such  agencies. 

BOGOTA  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION,  AREA,  AND  POPULATION. 

The  commercial  district  of  Bogota,  the  most  extensive  and  populous 
commercial  section  in  Colombia,  is  located  in  the  central  part  of  the 
country  near  the  eastern  fringe  of  the  inhabited  portion.  It  is  com- 
posed of  the  Department  of  Cundinamarca,  in  which  the  city  of 
Bogota,  the  trade  center  of  the  district  and  the  national  capital,  is 
located;  Boyaca  to  the  north  and  northwest  of  Cundinamarca; 
Tolima  to  the  west  and  southwest;  Huila  to  the  south;  and  a  portion 
of  the  Department  of  Santander,  although,  strictly  speaking,  San- 
tander  is  not  a  part  of  the  commercial  district  of  Bogota. 

Cundinamarca  has  an  area  of  13,000  square  miles,  about  one-third 
that  of  Antioc^uia,  the  largest  and  most  populous  Department  in  the 
inhabited  portion  of  Colombia.  The  estimated  population  of  795,000, 
however,  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Antioquia.  Boyaca  has  an  area 
of  17,654  square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of  645,000,  the 
largest  population  of  any  Department  with  the  exception  of  Antio- 
quia and  Cundinamarca.  Tolima  has  an  area  of  10,811  square  miles 
and  an  estimated  population  of  310,000.  Huila  has  an  area  of  8,687 
square  miles  and  an  estimated  population  of  170,000. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL.  DISTRICTS,      241 
TOPOGRAPHY.  CLIMATE.  AND  RAINFALL. 

Topographically  the  outstanding  features  of  this  commercial  dis- 
trict are  the  Magdalena  Valley,  in  the  Departments  of  Santander, 
Tolima,  and  Huila;  the  high  table-land  of  Bogota  in  Cundinamarca; 
the  plains  of  Sogamoso  in  Boyaca;  and  the  uninhabited  plains  of 
the  Oriuoco  watershed  east  of  the  eastern  Cordillera.     The  valley  of 


the  Magdalena  is  a  tropical  region  containing  little  level  or  useful 
land.  The  section  near  the  headwaters  of  the  river  in  the  Depart- 
ment of  Huila  is  subject  to  heavy  rains.  The  lower  Magdalena 
region  has  two  dry  and  two  rainy  seasons,  the  longer  dry  season  ex- 
tending from  November  through  March  and  the  shorter  from  June 
through  July,  the  longer  rainy  season  extending  from  August  through 


37558°— 21- 


-16 


242    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

October  and  the  shorter  from  April  through  May.     The  region  is 
also  subject  to  terrific  windstorms. 

The  table-land  of  Bogota,  in  reality  part  of  the  central  section  of 
the  eastern  Cordillera,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  topographical 
feature  of  all  Colombia.  It  is  a  fertile  plain  about  300  miles  long, 
50  miles  wide,  and  approximately  9,000  leet  above  sea  level.  Rains 
are  frequent  throughout  the  year,  and  the  temperature  averages  about 
45°  or  50°.  Frost  is  unknown.  The  plains  of  Sogamoso,  also  part 
of  the  central  zone  of  the  eastern  Cordillera,  are  similar  to  the  table- 
land of  Bogota,  but  have  an  altitude  of  only  about  5,000  feet,  and 
therefore  are  somewhat  warmer. 

RACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  INHABrfANTS. 

Although  the  infusion  of  Spanish  blood  is  evident  in  the  lai^er 
towns,  the  bulk  of  the  population  in  the  region  around  Bogota  and 
Tunja  is  Indian  in  all  characteristics.  The  Negro  strain  is  pro- 
nounced in  the  hot  country  of  the  Magdalena  Valley.  In  the  main, 
business  and  politics  are  in  the  hands  of  the  descendants  of  the 
Spaniards,  although  there  is  a  small  middle  class,  sometimes  called 
''mestizo,"  derived  from  a  mixture  of  Spanish  and  Indian  blood,  and 
comprising  the  small  shopkeeper,  artisan,  etc.  The  more  or  less  pure- 
blooded  Indians  work  on  the  plantations,  in  the  coffee  groves  and 
wheat  fields,  and  are  the  common  laborers  in  the  towns  of  the  high- 
lands. 

As  the  Indians  of  this  district  are  apparently  apathetic  to  modern 
influences,  little  progress  has  been  made  toward  their  education.  The 
influence  of  immigration  from  Antioquia  is  seen  throughout  the 
Bogota  district.  The  Antioquians  travel  to  Boyaca  to  engage  in 
cattle  raising  and  wheat  farming,  and  carry  on  trading  in  every 
locality.     Many  Medellin  firms  have  established  branches  in  Bogota. 

EDUCATION. 

Public  schools  are  free,  but  attendance  is  not  obligatory  in  Colom- 
bia. In  1912  Cundinamarca  had  563  primary  schools,  with  27,027 
pupils;  Boyaca,  346  schools,  with  17,577  pupils;  Huila,  124  schools, 
with  7,589  pupils;  and  Tolima,  206  schools,  with  9,062  pupils.  In 
addition  to  its  primary  schools,  Colombia  has  some  230  high  schools, 
with  a  total  attendance  of  approximately  20,000.  The  largest  of 
these  high  schools  are  the  two  in  Bogota,  each  with  about  600  pupils. 
The  literate  population  does  not  exceed  500,000. 

The  National  University  of  Bogota,  the  largest  university  in  the 
country,  had  636  students  in  1912.  Not  more  tnan  30  per  cent  of  the 
pupils,  however,  ordinarily  complete  their  courses.  There  are  also 
an  art  school  and  a  conservatory  of  music  in  Bogota.  The  lack  of 
agricultural  training,  the  neglect  of  scientific  studies,  and  the  absence 
oi  manual  and  industrial  training  are  generally  conceded  to  be  the 
most  serious  defects  in  the  educational  system  of  Colombia. 

UVING  CONDmONS  IN  BOGOTA. 

Small  villages  are  numerous  in  Cundinamarca  and  Boyaca,  but 
Bogota  is  the  only  large  city  in  the  whole  commercial  district.  It 
is  situated  on  the  table-land  of  Bogota  near  the  higher  CordUlera  on 
the  east  and  has  an  altitude  of  nearly  9,000  feet.     Although  the  cli- 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  206. 


FIG.   16.— CALLE  REAL,   BOGOTA. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTEEISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      243 

mate  is  agreeable  on  the  whole,  the  early  liiomings  and  evenings  are 
quite  cool.  Penetrating  rains  and  heavy  mists  are  frequent  through- 
out the  year,  but  the  houses  lack  heating  arrangements  of  any  sort. 

As  a  rule,  food  in  Bogota  is  cheaper  than  in  the  United  States. 
Good  butter,  ham,  bacon,  and  cheese  are  produced  locally,  and  vege- 
tables produced  in  the  Temperate  Zone  are  plentiful  and  cheap. 
Well-trained  servants  may  be  had  for  5  to  10  Colombian  dollars 
(1  Colombian  dollar  =  $0.9733  at  normal  exchange)  per  month,  and 
rents  seem  to  be  lower  than  in  the  United  States.  Clothing,  too,  is 
cheaper  if  made  from  domestic  cloth  by  the  local  tailors,  who  turn 
out  presentable  suits.  There  is  considerable  social  life  among  the 
upper  classes,  and  the  people  of  Bogota  welcome  foreigners.  A  new 
residential  suburb,  Chapinaro,  which  is  being  rapidly  built  up,  has 
some  fine  houses,  although  it  lacks  paving  and  proper  drainage  facili- 
ties. 

PUBLIC-UTILITY  SERVICE  IN  BOGOTA. 

The  present  tendency  is  toward  municipal  ownership  of  all  public 
utilities.  Those  now  operated  by  the  city  are  paying  good  returns, 
and  there  seems  to  be  little  question  of  the  pront  to  be  derived  from 
the  extension  of  this  service.  Better  water-supply  and  drainage  sys- 
tems and  more  paving  are  needed.  The  present  water-supply  and 
drainage  systems  are  so  inadequate  that  typhus  fevers  are  common. 
With  the  exception  of  the  main  street  and  a  few  blocks  in  the  busi- 
ness section  which  are  paved  with  asphalt,  the  streets  are  either 
paved  with  cobblestones  and  are  constantly  out  of  repair  or  are  not 
paved  at  all.  The  street-railway  system  is  owned  by  the  municipal 
government  and  is  paying  good  returns.  An  extension  is  badly 
needed. 

The  electric  light  and  power  plant  is  owned  by  a  Colombian  com- 
pany capitalized  at  1,153,200  Colombian  dollars.  The  plant  is  lo- 
cated 25  kilometers  (1  kilometer  =  0.62  mile)  from  Bogota  below  the 
Falls  of  Tequendama  on  the  Bogota  River.  The  transmission  lines 
cover  73  kilometers,  and  current  is  suppled  to  50,000  lamps  for  pri- 
vate use  and  more  than  2,000  for  public  use  and  street  lighting. 

Telephone  service  is  supplied  by  an  English  company  with  a  capi- 
talization of  £37,000  (£1  =  $4.87  at  normal  exchange).  Annual 
dividends  have  averaged  16  per  cent,  and  all  indebtedness,  with 
the  exception  of  a  small  margin,  has  been  retired.  There  are 
2,000  instruments  in  use  now,  but  as  this  number  is  no  longer  ade- 
quate, a  movement  has  been  started  to  have  the  system  taken  over 
by  the  city  and  extended  with  additional  long-distance  service  for 
the  entire  district. 

BANKS  AND  INSURANCE  COMPANIES. 

Bogota  has  four  native  banks,  one  American  bank,  and  two  native 
insurance  companies.  One  of  the  native  banks — the  Banco  de  Co- 
lombia— was  started  as  a  Government  agency,  but  it  is  now  operated 
solely  as  a  private  enterprise,  without  any  unusual  privileges.  The 
other  Colombian  banks  have  never  had  any  Government  connection. 
All  the  local  banks  are  conservative. 

Colombia  has  no  system  of  commercial  discounts,  and  the  laws 
preclude  the  use  of  mortgage  loans  to  any  extent.  There  has  never 
been  sufficient  capital  to  finance  the  industries  of  the  country,  and 


244    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

intorest  rates  have  been  high.  The  ostahlishmeiit  by  the  Mercantile 
Bank  of  the  Americas  of  11  branches  in  Colombia  has  tended  to  kiwer 
interest  rates  and  to  increase  the  scope  of  banking  activity  and  tlie 
assistance  rendered  to  commerce  and  business.  The  following  figures, 
taken  from  the  published  statements  of  the  Mercantile  Banlc  of  the 
Americas,  in  Bogota,  illustrate  the  rapid  growth  of  the  business  of 
this  bank,  which  is  said  to  have  a  volume  of  business  greater  than 
that  of  all  the  other  Bogota  banks  put  together:  On  December  31, 
1918 — cash  and  gold  in  mint,  334,220  Colombian  dollars;  loans  and 
discounts,  2,734,395  Colombian  dollars;  and  deposits,  341,531  Colom- 
bian dollars;  on  March  31,  1919 — cash  and  gold  in  mint,  2,455,628 
Colombian  dollars;  loans  and  discounts,  4,335,406  Colombian  dollars; 
and  deposits,  1,225,172  Colombian  dollars. 

TRANSPORTATION  BETWEEN  BOGOTA  AND  THE  COAST. 

At  present  it  requires  from  eight  days  to  a  month  for  a  person  to 
travel  frdm  the  coast  to  Bogota.  Often  coffee  and  hides  shipped 
from  the  interior  do  not  reach  the  coast  for  four  or  even  five  months, 
and  imports  of  merchandise  from  the  coast  to  the  interior  fare  little 
better.  Merchandise  intended  for  Bogota  is  shipped  from  the  coast 
up  the  Magdalena  to  La  Dorada,  the  head  of  navigation  of  the  Lower 
River,  a  distance  of  987  kilometers  from  Barranquilla ;  from  La 
Dorada  via  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway  around  a  series  of  rapids 
to  Beltran,  on  the  Upper  River,  a  distance  of  111  kilometers;  from 
Beltran  by  smaller  steamers  to  Girardot,  a  distance  of  152  kilo- 
meters; from  Girardot  via  the  Girardot  Railway  to  Facatativa,  on 
the  western  edge  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  a  distance  of  125  kilo- 
meters; and  from  Facatativa  via  the  Sabana  Railway  across  the 
table-land  to  Bogota,  a  distance  of  40  kilometers;  making  a  total  of 
1,415  kilometers. 

The  Magdalena,  always  a  slow  and  expensive  means  of  communi- 
cation, is  becoming  worse  year  by  year.  During  the  dry  season  boats 
can  not  carry  half  their  normal  cargo  and  suffer  numerous  delays  on 
the  Lower  River.  Navigation  often  has  to  be  suspended  entirely  on 
the  Upper  River.  Unfortunately,  the  dry  season  coincides  with  the 
coffee  harvest,  and  consequently  coffee,  the  most  important  article  of 
export  from  the  Bogota  district,  is  held  up  all  along  the  river  wait- 
ing for  high  water.  In  short,  the  business  and  progress  of  the  inte- 
rior of  Colombia  is  being  retarded  by  the  necessity  of  using  the 
Magdalena,  and  the  construction  of  a  railway  from  Bogota  to  the 
coast  is  constantly  becoming  more  imperative.  Several  possible 
routes  have  been  considered,  out  the  so-called  Pacific  Route  is  con- 
sidered the  most  feasible  by  the  Government.  As  now  planned,  this 
route  will  extend  from  Bogota  to  Facatativa  and  Girardot  over  the 
railways  now  in  operation,  from  Girardot  to  Iba^ue  over  the  Tolima 
Railway  (almost  completed),  from  Ibague  via  a  line  to  be  built  over 
the  Quindio  Pass  to  Palmira,  and  from  Palmira  to  Buenaventura 
over  the  Pacific  Railway,  now  in '  operation. 

FREIGHT  TRAFFIC  ON  MAGDALENA  RIVER. 

Freight  charges  between  Bogota  and  the  coast  are  excessively  high. 
The  delivery  of  a  ton  of  wheat  produced  in  the  Bogota  region  to  the 
flour  mills  at  Cartagena  or  Barranquilla  costs  about  72  Colombian 


ECONOMIC   (CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAI^  DISTRICTS.     245 

dollars,  and  it  costs  60  Colombian  dollars  to  send  a  ton  of  coffee  from 
Cundinamarea  to  the  coast  for  export.  The  shipment  to  Bogota  of 
heavy  merchandise,  such  as  hardware  and  small  machinery,  costs 
approximately  90  per  cent  of  the  New  York  invoice  value. 

Despite  these  high  freight  rates,  however,  the  Magdalena  service  is 
entirely  inadequate  to  handle  the  freight  traffic  during  the  coffee- 
hafvest  season,  which  is  also  the  buying  season  for  the  merchants  of 
the  Bo^ta  district.  The  Pool  Fluvial  maintains  10  steamers  on  the 
Lower  Kiver  which,  during  seasons  of  high  water,  can  handle  every 
20  days  about  6,000  tons  of  through  up-river  freight  and  8,000  tons  of 
down-river  freight.  During  this  same  time  the  8  steamers  of  the 
Upper  River  service  can  each  make  six  round  trips,  in  good  season, 
brmging  down  to  Beltran  5,796  tons  of  freight  and  carrying  from 
Beltran  to  Girardot  4,500  tons.  iVlso,  during  this  same  period  as 
much  as  2,000  tons  of  freight  often  arrive  at  Honda  from  southwest- 
ern Cundinamarea  and  4,000  tons  from  the  Department  of  Caldas 
and  the  mountains  of  Tolima.  In  other  words,  during  the  coffee- 
harvest  season,  if  there  is  sufficient  water  in  the  Upper  River,  11,796 
tons  of  export  freight  may  arrive  at  La  Dorada  every  20  days,  but 
only  8,000  tons  can  be  shipped  farther  down.  This  condition  causes 
great  delay  in  the  transfer  of  freight  at  this  point. 

DORADA  EXTENSION  RAILWAY. 

The  Dorada  Extension  Railway  is  owned  by  an  English  company 
with  a  capital  of  350,000  Colombian  dollars  and  an  outstanding 
bonded  indebtedness  of  350,000  Colombian  dollars.  The  cost  of  op- 
eration is  the  lowest  of  any  railway  in  Colombia  with  one  exception. 
During  1917  the  railway  carried  125,145  passengers  and  84,045  tons 
of  freight.  The  gross  returns  for  the  year  were  534,745  Colombian 
dollars  and  the  not  returns  326,286  Colombian  dollars.  The  railway 
traverses  a  comparatively  level  country,  has  no  tunnels,  and  only  one 
long  bridge.  The  roadbed  is  dirt  filled  for  the  most  part  and  not 
well  graded.  The  company  owns  78  freight  cars  with  a  total  capacity 
of  1,030  tons.  Its  locomotives  are  of  sufficient  size,  but  in  bad  con- 
dition, and  can  only  pull  trains  of  8  to  10  cars  with  a  total  load  of 
approximately  120  tons.     Wood  is  used  for  fuel. 

At  La  Dorada  and  Beltran  there  are  no  docks  or  other  freight- 
handling  facilities  except  a  large  crane  for  lifting  heavy  machinery, 
and  freight  is  transferred  up  and  down  the  steep  banks  of  the  river 
between  the  railway  and  the  river  on  the  backs  of  native  workmen. 
The  sheds  at  Beltran  are  more  than  sufficient  for  the  storage  of 
freight  under  normal  conditions,  and  during  the  coffee-harvest  sea- 
son of  1919  held  some  2,000  tons  of  export  freight  and  about  8,000 
tons  of  import  cargo.  A  concession  for  an  extension  of  this  railway 
from  Beltran  to  connect  with  Girardot  has  been  secured  by  a  Bogota 
firm.  The  country  through  which  this  extension  will  pass  is  prac- 
tically level,  and  the  advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  elimination 
of  the  trip  on  the  upper  Magdalena  are  obvious. 

GIRARDOT  RAILWAY. 

The  Girardot  Railway  climbs  from  Girardot,  elevation  325  meters 
(1  meter  =  3.28  feet),  to  the  edge  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota,  eleva- 
tion 2,729  meters,  with  a  maximum  gradient  of  4  per  cent  for  a  short 
distance.     Landslides  are  frequent  along  the  road,  which  is  often 


246    c^olombia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

out  of  commission  for  several  days  at  a  time  during  the  rainy  season. 
The  railway  is  owned  nominally  by  an  English  company  capitali'/5(>(l 
at  £900,000.  It  has  been  operated  at  a  loss  and  is  mortgaged  be- 
yond its  actual  value.  One-third  of  the  capital  stock  is  held  by  the 
Colombian  Government,  which  also  guaranteed  several  bond  issues 
and  is  said  to  have  spent  14,800,000  Colombian  dollars  on  the  road. 
Additional  payments,  however,  must  be  made  before  it  can  assume 
control.  The  gross  receipts  for  1918  were  752,352  Colombian  dollars 
and  the  net  returns  316,869  Colombian  dollars,  out  of  which  225,520 
Colombian  dollars  were  spent  in  repairs  and  new  equipment.  The 
gross  returns  for  1918  showed  a  gain  of  32,827  Colombian  dollars 
over  those  of  1917. 

The  company  owns  17  locomotives,  12  of  which  are  in  good  or 
fairly  good  condition,  26  passenger  coaches,  and  82  freight  cars,  with 
a  total  capacity  of  1,625  tons.  About  half  of  the  freight  cars  are  in 
need  of  repair. 

SABANA  RAILWAY. 

The  Sabana  Railway,  traversing  a  level  and  populous  district,  has 
considerable  local  traffic.  The  roadbed  is  dirt  filled  for  the  most  part, 
but  well  graded  and  ditched.  The  track  is  of  meter  ^auge.  There 
are  no  tunnels  and  only  one  small  bridge.  The  road  is  operated  by 
the  Compaiiia  del  Ferrocarril  de  la  Sabana,  practically  all  of  whose 
stock  is  controlled  by  the  Colombian  Government.  During  1917  the 
road  carried  653,881  passengers  and  116,499  tons  of  freight.  The 
gross  returns  for  the  year  were  329,051  Colombian  dollars  and  the 
net  returns  161,453  Colombian  dollars. 

The  difficulty  of  navigating  the  upper  Magdalena  and  the  high 
cost  of  operating  the  Girardot  Railway  have  induced  the  Colombian 
Government  to  consider  the  extension  of  the  Sabana  Railway  to 
Puerto  Nino,  50  kilometers  below  La  Dorada,  on  the  Lower  River. 
A  survey  was  made  in  1917,  and  since  that  time  grading' has  been 
completed  and  the  rails  ordered  for  the  section  between  Facatativa 
and  Dintel,  a  distance  of  13  kilometers.  The  total  distance  from 
Facatativa  to  Puerto  Nino  is  228  kilometers,  and  the  total  average 
cost  per  kilometer  is  estimated  at  25,000  Colombian  dollars.  The 
population  of  this  district  is  approximately  95,000;  agriculture  and 
cattle  raising  are  the  principal  industries.  The  region  contains  de- 
posits of  coal  and  iron  and  numerous  waterfalls  for  the  development 
of  hydroelectric  power.  Pacho  is  the  largest  town  along  the  pro- 
posed route. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  GOODS  FROM  BOGOTA. 

From  Bogota  goods  are  distributed  throughout  Cundinamarca  and 
Boyaca,  often  by  pack  mule  or  ox,  despite  the  excellent  wagon  road 
leading  out  from  tne  city  and  the  two  snort  railways,  both  of  which 
render  good  local  service.  One  of  these  railways,  the  Northern,  ex- 
tends north  to  Nemocon,  a  distance  of  32  kilometers;  the  second,  the 
Southern,  extends  southwest  to  Sibate,  a  distance  of  30  kilometers. 
The  wagon  road,  the  Great  Northern  Central  Highway,  connects 
Bogota  with  Quiquinquira  and  Tunja,  the  two  most  important  towns 
of  the  region  north  of  Bogota.  This  wagon  road,  though  not  i.iuch 
used  for  wagons  or  mule  carts,  is  perhaps  the  most  important  means 
of  communication  which  Bogota  or  that  part  of  the  country  possesses, 
with  the  exception  of  the  railways  connecting  Bogota  with  the  upper 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      247 

Magdalena.  It  is  about  200  miles  long  and  passes  through  the  most 
developed  and  populous  region  of  the  entire  district.  Passengers 
travel  m  automobile  stages  from  Bogota  to  Santa  Rosa,  where  mules 
must  be  taken  for  the  journey  into  Santander.  Zipaquira  is  the  con- 
necting point  between  the  Northern  Railway  and  tne  Great  Northern 
Central  Highway. 

NORTHEKN  AND  SOUTHERN  RAILWAYS. 

The  Northern  Railway  was  built,  primarily,  to  tap  the  salt  mines 
at  Zipaquira  and  the  coal  mines  at  Nemocon,  but  was  to  be  extended 
ultimately  to  Quiquinquira,  where  it  was  to  connect  with  the  pro- 
posed southern  extension  of  the  Puerto  Wilches-Bucaramanga  Rail- 
way. The  portion  of  the  railway  between  Bogota  and  Zipaquira 
belongs  to  tne  Colombian  Northern  Railway  Co,  (Ltd.),  ana  the  15 
kilometers  between  Zipaquira  and  Nemocon  belong  to  the  Colombian 
Government,  which  is  interested  in  the  extension  to  Quiquinquira. 

The  road  has  a  meter  gauge  and  a  heavily  graded  and  well-filled 
roadbed.  There  are  no  tunnels  and  only  three  small  bridges.  The 
equipment  consists  of  13  locomotives,  6  new  and  all  of  American 
manufacture;  36  passenger  cars,  all  of  American  manufacture;  and 
83  freight  cars.  During  1917,  612,594  passengers  were  carried  and 
90,459  tons  of  freight.  The  gross  receipts  were  402,332  Colombian 
dollars  and  the  net  receipts  262,791  Colombian  dollars.  This  railway 
has  a  lower  operating  expense  than  any  other  in  Colombia. 

The  Southern  Railway  was  built  to  tap  the  coal  beds  near  Tequen- 
dama  and  the  timberland  of  the  region.  It  traverses  a  populous  and 
productive  section.  The  track  has  a  meter  gauge,  ana  the  roadbed 
is  rock  ballasted  and  heavily  graded.  The  Colombian  Government 
purchased  the  railway  in  1905  for  about  £60,000,  and  is  now  con- 
sidering three  possible  extensions,  one  of  which  is  to  tap  the  coffee 
region  southwest  of  the  table-land  of  Bogota.  During  1918,  173,730 
passengers  were  carried  and  59,855  tons  of  freight.  The  gross  re- 
ceipts were  133,381  Colombian  dollars,  and  the  net  returns  were 
58,697  Colombian  dollars. 

TOLIMA  RAILWaV. 

Merchandise  intended  for  Tolima  comes  up  the  Magdalena  to 
Honda,  and  is  distributed  from  there,  or  continues  up  the  river  to 
Girardot,  and  is  sent  inland  via  the  Tolima  Railway,  now  building 
toward  Ibague,  the  capital  of  the  Department.  From  Ibague  it  is 
sent  across  the  Quindio  Pass  by  pack  train.  Merchandise  intended 
for  Huila  is  sent  up  the  river  from  Girardot  by  launch,  raft,  or  even 
canoe,  or  sometimes  during  the  dry  season  by  pack  train  to  the  town 
of  Neiva,  capital  of  Huila. 

The  Tolima  Railway  starts  at  Flandes,  across  the  Magdalena  from 
Girardot,  and  extends  toward  Ibague,  which  is  situated  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1,299  meters  near  the  approach  to  the  famous  Quindio  Pass 
across  the  central  Cordillera.  It  has  been  completed  to  Asiestadero. 
Coffee  is  the  principal  article  of  export  freight  from  this  district. 
Up  to  1916  the  road  cost  the  Colombian  Government  750,000  Colom- 
bian dollars,  and  during  that  year  Congress  authorized  a  loan  of 
400,000  Colombian  dollars,  which  it  was  thought  would  finish  the 
work  to  Ibague.  It  has  been  found,  however,  that  an  additional 
600,000  Colombian  dollars  will  be  required  for  this  work,  and  100,000 


248    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

Colombian  dollars  for  equipment  and  rolling  stock.  Also  a  steel 
bridge  will  have  to  be  built  over  the  Magdalena  River  to  connect  with 
the  Girardot  Railway,  and  this  will  probably  cost  600,000  Colombian 
dollars. 

During  1917,  169,407  passengers  were  carried  and  9,857  tons  of 
freight.  The  gross  returns  were  49,090  Colombian  dollars  and  the 
net  returns  3,635  Colombian  dollars.  Considering  the  high  cost  of 
construction,  the  limited  production  of  the  region  served,  and  other 
adverse  conditions,  it  seems  doubtful  whether  the  local  traffic  will 
pay  an  adequate  return  on  the  investment.  As  a  connecting  link  in 
the  Pacific  Route,  however,  the  railway  is  important.  An  increase 
in  traffic  may  be  expected  when  the  road  is  completed  to  Ibague. 

PROPOSED  NEW  RAILWAY  BETWEEN  IBAGUE  AND  AMBALEMA. 

According  to  a  report  by  Consul  C.  E.  Guyant,  the  important  firm 
of  Pedro  A.  Lopez  &  Co.,  of  Bogota,  signed  in  May,  1919, -a  contract 
with  the  Department  of  Tolima  for  the  construction  of  a  railway  be- 
tween Ibague,  the  capital  of  the  Department,  and  Ambalema  (Boltran) , 
on  the  Magdalena  River,  to  connect  at  its  river  terminus  with  the 
Dorada  Railway  and  at  the  other  end  with  the  new  Girardot-Ibague 
line,  which  is  a  link  in  the  projected  Pacific  Railway.  The  importance 
of  the  projected  line  is  that  it  will  do  away  with  the  necessity  Tor  using 
the  upper  Magdalena  River  as  a  link  in  the  route  to  Bogota  and  will 
provide  an  all-rail  route  from  La  Dorada  (head  of  na%dgation  on  thie 
lower  Magdalena)  to  the  capital.  It  will  also  give  the  Department 
of  Tolima  direct  connection  with  the  main  river  traffic.  By  the  terms 
of  the  contract  (dated  May  22,  1919),  work  was  to  begin  within  three 
months  and  to  be  completed  within  four  years. 

AGRICULTURE. 

There  is  practically  no  waste  land  on  the  high  table-land  of  Bogota. 
The  soil  is  a  rich  black  loam,  which  retains  moisture,  and  the  region 
is  well  drained  by  thQ  Bogota  River.  Wealthy  residents  of  Bogota 
own  most  of  the  farm  land,  the  value  of  which  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  soil  and  the  location,  the  most  valuable  being  that 
to  the  north,  west,  and  southwest  along  the  railways  radiating  from 
Bogota.  This  is  the  one  section  of  Colombia  where  modern  agri- 
cultural machinery,  such  as  American  disk  plows,  tooth  harrows, 
cultivators,  and  harvesting  and  milling  machinery,  is  used.  Labor 
is  plentiful  and  cheap.  The  Indian  peon  is  provided  with  a  hut  on 
the  hacienda  and  a  small  patch  of  ground  on  which  he  may  grow  his 
own  foodstuffs. 

It  is  estimated  that  Cundinamarca  has  some  1,550,000  hectares 
(1  hectare  =  2.47  acres)  under  cultivation,  and  that  the  crops  pro- 
duced annually  are  worth  approximately  33,000,600  Colombian  dol- 
lars. The  Bogota  district  is  capable  of  great  agricultural  expansion, 
especially  the  northern  portion  toward  Boyaca,  but  this  expansion 
has  been  retarded  by  the  lack  of  cheap  transportation  between  this 
district  and  other  parts  of  Colombia  needing  wheat,  cattle,  and  the 
other  products  of  tne  district. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     249 


Cundinamarca  is  estimated  to  have  had  some  30,000  acres  planted 
to  wheat  each  year  since  1916.  The  acreage  yield  is  high,  and  in 
1919  the  Department  is  said  to  have  produced  more  than  1,166,000 
bushels,  valued  at  4,250,000  Colombian  dollars.  The  average  selling 
price  per  bushel  for  the  year  was  3.65  Colombian  dollars,  the  high 
price  about  4.30  and  the  low  2.15. 


Coffee  is  the  chief  product  of  the  mountainous  region  between  the 
table-land  of  Bogota  and  the  Magdalena  Valley.  Methods  of  culti- 
vation and  harvesting  are  more  modern  here  than  elsewhere  in  Colom- 
bia, and  labor  is  abundant  and  cheap,  but  the  industry  is  hampered 
by  the  poor  transportation  facilities  of  the  district.  Cundinamarca 
is  said  to  have  32,900,000  coffee  trees,  covering  an  area  of  approxi- 
mately 89,500  acres.  The  yield  for  the  Department  in  1918  was 
about  42,200,000  pounds,  valued  at  3,804,000  Colombian  dollars,  and 
the  1919  yield,  the  heaviest  ever  reported,  was  at  least  25  per  cent 
higher.  The  coffee  from  this  district,  known  in  the  world's  markets 
under  the  trade  name  of  Bogota,  has  an  excellent  flavor  and  aroma, 
and  commands  a  higher  price  than  the  Brazilian  product. 

Coffee  grows  best  at  an  altitude  of  5,000  feet,  but  does  well  up  to 
an  altitude  of  7,000  feet.  Trees  begin  to  bear  when  they  are  3  or 
4  years  old,  are  at  full  bearing  at  the  age  of  6  years,  and  continue 
bearing  until  16  or  20  years  old.  The  average  yield  of  1  pound 
of  cleaned  coffee  per  tree  has  been  increased  in  some  instances  to  as 
much  as  2i  pounds  where  the  land  has  been  cultivated,  kept,  well 
cleared  of  small  undergrowth,  and,  when  necessary,  irrigated.  Al- 
though some  coffee  picKing  goes  on  throughout  the  year,  there  are 
two  regular  harvest  seasons,  the  principal  one  from  March  through 
May  and  the  second  from  October  through  November.  Women  and 
children  are  employed  to  do  the  picking. 

Prior  to  1919  the  small  producers  usually  sold  their  coffee,  un- 
cleaned,  to  the  wealthy  owners  of  large  plantations  or  to  local  mer- 
chants, in  either  case  receiving  only  a  small  margin  of  the  export 
selling  price.  The  arrival  of  foreign  buyers  to  compete  with  these 
local  traders  in  1919  enabled  the  small  producers  to  obtain  a  higher 
price  for  their  product,  and  this  in  turn  stimulated  production. 
New  plantations  are  being  set  out  and  old  ones  enlarged,  so  that 
Cundinamarca's  coffee  production  should  be  doubled  in  the  next  10 
years  unless  some  unforeseen  obstacle  develops. 


OTHER   AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTS. 


The  Bogota  district  produces  a  wide  variety  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts for  local  consumption.  Bananas,  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  yuccas, 
and  other  tropical  products  are  raised  in  the  Magdalena  Valley  and 
in  the  river  valleys  of  the  mountainous  country  surrounding  the 
table-land  of  Bogota.  In  the  higher  altitudes,  above  6,000  feet, 
nearly  all  the  products  of  the  Temperate  Zone,  including  potatoes, 
apples,  and  many  other  vegetables  and  fruits  known  in  the  United 
States,  are  raised.  With  the  exception  of  wheat,  Huila  and  Tolima 
produce  enough  foodstuffs  for  their  own  use  but  none  for  export  to 


250     COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

other  Departments.  Some  cacao,  rubber,  and  cotton  are  grown  in 
the  Bogota  district,  but  these  products  are  still  more  or  less  of  an 
experiment. 

UVE-STOCK  INDUSTRY. 

The  live  stock  of  Cundinamarca  is  estimated  to  be  worth  more  than 
50,000,000  Colombian  dollars.  No  recent  estimates  for  Boyaca  are 
available;  it  possesses  level  and  fertile  land  suitable  for  cattle 
raising,  but  as  its  present  population  is  largely  Indian  its  future 
development  depenqs  upon  immigration  from  Antioquia  and  upon 
improved  transportation  facilities.  The  plains  across  the  eastern 
Cordillera  to  the  southeast  of  Neiva  are  reported  to  be  well  suited  to 
cattle  raising.  They  are  more  healthful,  easier  of  access,  and  more 
adeq^uatel^y^  watered  than  those  directly  east  of  Bogota.  The  Cordil- 
lera IS  easily  crossed  at  this  point,  and  a  number  of  Bogota  capitalists 
have  become  interested  in  the  region. 

More  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  breeding  and  care  of  cattle  in 
the  Bogota  table-land  than  elsewhere  in  Colombia.  Hereford  and 
Durham  stocks  predominate,  and  in  weight  the  beef  cattle  compare 
favorably  with  tnose  raised  in  other  countries.  Considerable  barley 
and  some  alfalfa  are  raised  for  fodder.  Cattle  are  becoming  more 
valuable  each  vear,  a  full-grown  steer  now  selling  for  as  much  as  80 
Colombian  dollars,  about  twice  the  price  received  a  few  years  ago. 
Some  sheep  and  goats  are  raised  in  tnis  district,  and  there  is  a  good 
local  demand  for  wool  at  prices  equal  to  the  high  figures  commanded 
by  the  imported  product.  The  sheep  industry  is  capable  of  great  ex- 
pansion in  the  open  mountains  surrounding  the  high  plateau,  where 
there  is  an  abundance  of  short  grass  and  ^ood  water,  but  little  is 
known  as  yet  about  the  proper  care  or  breeding  of  sheep. 

Before  the  war,  Colombia  raised  few  hogs  and  imported  great 
quantities  of  lard  from  the  United  States,  but  hog  breeaing  has  now 
become  general  throughout  the  country,  and  enough  hogs  are  raised 
to  supply  the  local  demand.  Prices  are  high.  Mules  became  scarce 
during  the  coffee  harvest  of  1919,  and  their  value  increased  from  an 
average  price  of  60  to  75  Colombian  dollars  to  as  much  as  200  Colom- 
bian dollars  for  good  pack  animals. 

MINING. 

EMERALDS. 

Emerald  mining  is  a  Government  monopoly  in  Colombia.  The 
best-known  mines — the  Muzo  and  Cosquez — are  located  in  Boyaca 
about  90  miles  northwest  of  Bogota;  a  third,  the  Somondoco  mine, 
is  about  35  miles  east  of  Bogota;  and  a  fourth  deposit,  the  Cuincha, 
across  the  Minero  River  from  the  Muzo  mines.  The  two  last-named 
deposits  are  said  to  be  as  rich  as  the  more  famous  mines  of  Muzo 
and  Cosquez,  but  are  not  easily  accessible. 

The  M\izo  deposits  lie  in  a  valley  on  a  spur  of  the  eastern  Cordil- 
lera, two  or  three  days'  journey  on  muleback  from  Bogota  over  bad 
trails  through  rough  country.  The  emeralds  occur  in  calcite  veins 
traversing  mack  carboniferous  limestone.  To  follow  the  veins,  steel 
bars  and  shovels  are  used  to  cut  down  banks,  great  care  being 
exercised  not  to  injure  the  emeralds  as  the  veins  are  approached. 
No  engineering  skill  can  determine  beforehand  the  approximate 
value  of  any  vein  or  deposit,  but  wherever  a  vein  shows  it  is  followed, 


ECOlSrOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS,      251 

even  for  years,  and  once  a  productive  formation  is  found  it  is  worked 
night  and  day  until  exhausted,  sometimes  over  a  period  of  years, 
as  at  Muzo.  The  mines  are  heavily  guarded  by  mihtary  poHce,  and 
the  miners  constantly  watched  and  searched. 

The  Muzo  and  Cosquez  mines  have  produced  as  much  as  800,000 
carats  of  emeralds  of  15  different  grades  in  one  year.  Since  the  war 
has  curtailed  the  market  for  emeralds,  the  Government  has  done 
little  to  develop  new  veins  and  is  said  to  be  holding  a  large  number 
of  stones  in  Paris  awaiting  a  more  favorable  market.  A  Parisian 
firm  of  international  reputation  is  also  holding  a  large  deposit  of 
emeralds  from  the  Colombian  Government  as  guaranty  of  a  loan. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  the  Colombian  emerald  deposits  are  likely 
to  become  exhausted  for  the  next  few  hundred  years. 

SALT. 

The  region  north  of  Bogota  contains  enough  salt  to  supply  Colom- 
bia for  centuries.  It  occurs  in  nearly  every  district  between  Bogota 
and  Pacho,  to  the  northwest;  around  the  towns  of  Sesquite,  Chita, 
and  Munque,  to  the  northeast;  and  at  Cuamral  and  IJpin.  The 
Cuamral  and  Upin  mines  are  not  extensively  worked,  however, 
because  of  the  lack  of  transportation  facilities.  Salt  mining  is  a 
Government  monopoly  and  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  national 
revenue.  There  are  eight  important  Government-owned  mines,  the 
total  output  from  which  is  sold  to  private  firms  who  refine  it  by  a 
process  of  evaporation.  These  eight  mines  had  a  total  production 
valued  at  965,894  Colombian  dollars  for  1918;  the  total  expense  of 
operation  amounted  to  144,651  Colombian  dollars,  and  the  net 
returns  to  821,243  Colombian  dollars. 

The  most  primitive  methods  of  mining  are  employed  at  all  these 
mines  with  the  exception  of  the  Zipaquira  mine,  where  improvements 
are  being  made.  The  Zipaquira  mine,  the  most  important  of  the 
mines,  is  recorded  to  have  produced  a  total  of  739,220  tons  of  com- 
mercial salt  between  1778  and  1907.  Engineers  report  that  it  con- 
tains 500,000,000  cubic  meters  (cubic  meter  =  3.28  cubic  feet)  of  salt, 
having  a  weight  of  more  than  a  billion  kilos  (1  kilo  =  2.2  pounds). 

COAL. 

Coal  is  found  through  the  Bogota  region  and  as  far  north  toward 
the  Magdalena  Valley  as  the  town  of  Velez  in  Santander  del  Sur, 
and  as  far  to  the  northeast  in  the  eastern  Cordillera  as  the  towns  of 
Villavicencio  and  Guaduas  in  the  Guaduas  Valley.  The  coal  is 
bituminous  and  uniformly  good  in  quality.  An  average  analysis 
shows  the  following  composition: 

Per  cent. 

Volatile 23.  4    to  31.  2 

Ash 7.  65  to    7.  6 

Sulphur 0.  79  to    0.  99 

Free  carbon 63.  68  to  70. 1 

B.  t.  u.,  14,202  to  14.500. 

The  ordinary  mining  laws  of  Colombia  do  not  apply  to  coal  lands. 
Deposits  found  on  unoccupied  lands  belong  to  the  Government  and 
may  be  worked  only  with  its  consent;  but  coal  deposits  on  lands 
owned  by  private  individuals  may  be  worked  independently.  The 
most  important  mines  now  being  worked  are  those  at  Zipaquira, 


252      (COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

which  supply  the  salt-evaporation  plant  at  that  place  with  fuel,  and 
those  at  Nemecon  which  supply  the  railways  of  the  Bogota  tahlo-land. 
The  city  of  Bogota  is  supplied  from  exposed  ledges  of  coal  on  the 
mountain  side  directly  ahove  it,  and  the  Girardot  Railway  from  the 
Cipacon  mine  below  Facatativa.  The  Cipacon  mine  is  said  to  pro- 
duce the  best  coal,  that  with  the  highest  content  of  free  carbon  and 
the  least  volatile  matter.  The  beds  are  a  coarse  sandstone  formation 
interbedded  with  a  clay  shale.  Three  seatns  of  coal  usually  occur, 
varying  in  thickness  from  0.6  meter  to  1.2  meters  and  aggregating  2 
meters  as  an  average  width. 

IRON. 

Iron  is  found  in  the  neighborhood  of  many  of  the  coal  deposits 
of  the  Bogota  district,  but  the  ore  has  been  worked  at  only  two  places, 
at  Pacho  and  La  Pradera.  The  first  of  these  mines  has  been  aban- 
doned, and  little  progress  has  been  made  at  the  second  despite  the 
extensive  investment  made  there  a  few  years  ago.  Little  is  really 
known  of  the  iron  deposits,  but  the  ore  is  said  to  be  refractory  and 
difficult  to  smelt,  ana  it  seems  unlikelv  that  the  deposits  will  be  a 
factor  in  the  industrial  development  of  Colombia  for  many  years  to 
come. 

MANUFACTURING. 

With  the  exception  of  the  salt-refining  plants,  a  good-sized  tobacco 
factory  at  Ambalema,  and  numerous  small  cigar  and  cigarette  fac- 
tories, the  manufacturing  plants  of  the  Bogota  district  are  all  located 
in  or  near  Bogota.  These  factories  are  producing  flour,  chocolate, 
candy,  soap,  cotton  and  woolen  cloth,  shoes,  leather,  and  crackers,  all 
of  which  compete  successfully  with  the  imported  articles. 

Bogota  has  for  so  many  years  imported  all  sorts  of  manufactured 
products  that  the  better  classes  look  with  suspicion  on  the  domestic 
articles,  even  though  they  may  be  just  as  good  as  the  imported  ones 
and  a  great  deal  cheaper.  Nevertheless,  the  demand  for  domestic 
products  of  all  kinds  is  gradually  increasing.  Domestic  manufac- 
tures are  highly  protected  by  existing  import  duties,  and  there  is  un- 
doubtedly a  good  opportunity  to  develop  manufacturing  industries. 
Leather,  iron  and  steel  products,  paper  and  paper  products,  bags  and 
sacks,  and  woolen  and  cotton  textiles  are  needed. 

Flour,  which  has  been  used  only  in  the  larger  towns  heretofore,  is 
gradually  replacing  com  meal  among  the  lower  classes  throughout 
Colombia.  Bogota  exports  flour  to  the  coast,  and  to  Antioquia,  Cal- 
das,  and  El  Vafle.  In  1918,  at  the  instance  of  the  influential  Society 
of  Agriculture  of  Bogota,  the  import  duty  on  wheat  was  increased  to 
such  an  extent  that  it  became  impossible  for  the  coast  millers  to  im- 
port wheat  at  the  current  prices  obtaining  in  the  United  States,  pay 
this  duty,  and  compete  with  the  millers  of  Bogota.  However,  the 
flour  sent  down  to  the  coast  from  Bogota  was  expensive,  much  of  it 
was  spoiled  in  transit,  and  the  quantity  was  insufficient;  as  a  conse- 
quence the  import  duty  had  to  oe  reduced  again  in  1919.  A  large, 
new  flour  mill  is  being  erected  in  Bogota  that  will  increase  produc- 
tion and  help  relieve  the  shortage  felt  by  the  entire  country. 

The  five  chocolate  factories  of  Bogota  cater  only  to  the  local  de- 
mand, since  nearly  every  town  has  its  own  chocolate  factory.  Choco- 
late roasting  and  cleaning  machinery  is  made  in  Medellin.  The 
larger  factories  make  various  candies  and  bonbons  of  good  quality, 


economic'  characteristics  of  nine  commercial  districts.    253 

which  are  replacing  the  imported  articles.  Good  domestic  chocolate 
candy  retails  for  80  cents  per  pound  of  500  grams  (1  gram  =  0.002 
pound) ,  whereas  the  imported  article  has  to  be  sold  for  at  least  twice 
that  price.  Chocolate  is  used  extensively  as  a  beverage  throughout 
Colombia,  and  especially  in  Bogota.  The  retail  price  of  the  local 
product  is  only  about  42  cents  per  pound  of  500  grams.  The  local 
cracker  and  biscuit  factories  make  a  great  variety  of  crackers,  for 
which  there  is  a  large  and  increasing  demand.  Formerly  crackers 
were  imported  in  small  quantities  and  sold  at  high  prices. 

A  local  textile  factory  makes  woolen  cloths,  which  compare  favor- 
ably with  the  best  English  weaves,  and  a  medium-weight,  black 
broadcloth,  which  is  being  constantly  improved  upon,  though  it 
can  not  compare  with  the  imported  article  in  finish.  The  suit- 
ings retail  at  5  Colombian  dollars  per  meter  (1  meter  =1.09  yards) 
of  standard  double-width  cloth.  Although  at  present  domestic 
woolens  do  not  supply  one-tenth  of  the  demand  and  large  quantities 
are  imported,  it  seems  probable  that  the  local  production  will  be  so 
increased  in  the  near  future  that  it  will  encroach  seriously  upon  the 
market  for  the  imported  article. 

There  are  also  hundreds  of  small  factories  making  coarse,  loosely 
woven  woolen  blankets  and  the  square  "poncho"  blankets  worn  by 
the  lower  and  middle  classes.  Domestic  blankets  retail  for  4.50  to 
6.50  Colombian  dollars  apiece  and  ponchos  for  2  to  6  Colombian 
dollars,  depending  upon  the  size,  weight,  and  color  design. 

Bogota  has  one  fair-sized  shoe  factory  with  modern  equipment 
and  a  number  of  small  shops  tliat  make  ^ood-looking  ana  well- 
finished  shoes.  These  shops  ordinarily  use  imported  upper  leather 
and  trimmings,  but  native  sole  leather,  which  is  of  inferior  quality. 
The  people  of  the  middle  and  upper  classes  wear  the  locally  manu- 
factured shoes,  which  retail  at  6  to  8  Colombian  dollars  per  pair, 
whereas  imported  shoes  of  good  quality  sell  at  12  to  16  Colombian 
dollars  per  pair.  Ladies'  fancy  slippers  and  dress  shoes  sell  better 
than  other  kinds  of  imported  shoes.  The  leather  tanned  in  Colombia 
has  always  been  of  a  poor  quality,  but  a  modern  tannery,  recently 
established  in  Bogota,  is  producing  excellent  leather  of  many  differ- 
ent kinds  and  grades.  The  demand  for  this  leather  far  exceeds  the 
supply,  and  the  tannery  is  soon  to  be  enlarged.  The  general  pros- 
perity has  increased  the  demand  for  leather.  Middle-class  people  are 
wearing  more  shoes,  and  more  saddles  are  used,  so  that  the  industry 
has  a  promising  future. 

A  number  of  small  soap  factories  manufacture  common  laundry 
soap,  and  a  few  are  beginnmg  to  make  certain  cheap  grades  of  scented 
toilet  soap,  which  is  gradually  replacing  the  imported  article.  The 
chemicals  and  other  materials  required  by  these  factories,  except  the 
animal  and  vegetable  fats,  must  be  imported.  The  factories  have 
little  modern  equipment. 

VOLUME  OF  TRADE. 

The  market  for  coffee,  Colombia's  principal  export,  was  poor  dur- 
ing the  war,  but  after  the  signing  of  the  armistice  the  demand  in- 
creased rapidly  and  the  price  of  coffee  in  New  York  rose  propor- 
tionately. The  phenomenal  crop  of  1919  was  sold  at  unheard-of 
prices,  and  the  people  flocked  to  the  local  markets  to  purchase  aU 


254    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

sorts  of  merchandise.  This  sudden  demand  precipitated  a  mad  rush 
among  the  importers  to  obtain  supplies.  The  average  annual  volume 
of  imports  into  this  district  may  be  estimated  to  be  worth  about 
9,000,000  Colombian  dollars. 

The  city  of  Bogota  has  some  240  firms,  each  capitalized  at  10,000 
Colombian  dollars  or  more,  who  are  direct  importers  of  foreign  mer- 
chandise and  materials.  Three  of  the  oldest  and  largest  textile  im- 
porters are  each  capitalized  at  more  than  1,000,000  Colombian  dollars, 
three  or  four  others  each  have  a  capital  of  at  least  500,000  Colombian 
dollars,  and  15  have  capital  rangmg  between  100,000  and  300,000 
Colombian  dollars.  Eignteen  of  the  240  firms  are  factories  that 
import  raw  materials  of  various  kinds.  Five  are  railways  which 
import  rails  and  various  sorts  of  railway  equipment,  including  paints 
and  lubricants.  . 

TRADE  METHOliS. 

The  bulk  of  the  trade  with  Colombia  has  always  been  in  the  hands 
of  export  commission  houses,  who  supply  their  customers,  with  a 
wide  variety  of  miscellaneous  merchandise.  At  the  same  time  these 
houses  aid  in  marketing  their  customers'  shipments  of  Colombian 
produce  to  the  United  States,  In  addition  to  the  European  and 
American  export  conmiission  merchants,  and  possibly  of  even  greater 
importance,  are  the  Colombian  export  commission  firms  with  head- 
quarters in  America  or  Europe  and  offices  and  sample  rooms  through- 
out Colombia.     (See  p.  342.) 

Resident  sales  agents  have  been  more  successful  in  Bogota  than 
elsewhere  in  Colombia.  These  men  sometimes  represent  a  single  large 
commission  firm  engaged  in  a  general  export  business,  sometimes  one 
which  specializes,  probably  in  textiles,  sometimes  several  firms,  and 
often  a  group  of  manufacturers  with  whom  the  representative  has 
exclusive  agency  contracts  for  his  territory.  Bogota  also  has  a  few 
old  and  private  commission  and  banking  firms.  These  firms  usually 
specialize  in  some  line,  and  are  often  interested  in  a  number  of  indus- 
trial and  trade  enterprises,  for  which  they  do  aU  the  buying.  They 
also  buy  native  products  for  export. 

■  IMPORTANCE  OF  CARE  IN  PACKING. 

Special  care  in  packing  is  necessary  if  merchandise  is  to  reach 
Bogota  in  good  condition.  A  damaged  shipment  is  a  real  calamity 
to  a  Colombian  merchant.  It  means  not  only  the  loss  of  the  sale  of 
the  goods  and  consequently  a  loss  of  profit,  but  it  means  the  loss  of 
interest  on  his  money  (in  all  probability  he  has  had  to  accept  the 
exporter's  draft  before  the  arrival  of  the  shipment),  loss  of  the 
money  paid  out  for  import  duties,  and  endless  trouble  if  he  is  to  suc- 
ceed in  getting  his  claims  adjusted. 

The  difficulties  of  transportation  and  the  fact  that  import  duties 
are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  of  packages  have  resulted  in  some 
imusual  methods  of  packing  miich  might  well  be  adopted  more  gen- 
erally. One  Colombian  tobacco  factory  packs  its  products  in  cheap 
li^ht-weight  trunks,  protects  the  trunks  with  burlap  or  sacking  cov- 
erings, and  charges  for  the  trunks  as  well  as  their  contents.  The 
French,  prior  to  the  war,  packed  certain  kinds  of  merchandise  in 
light  but  strong  fiber  cases,  forwhich  a  charge  was  made.     (See  p.  386.) 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NI^STE   COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      255 
POSITION  OF  AMERICAN  AS  COMPARED  WITH  EUROPEAN  GOODS. 

Many  of  the  older  and  larger  firms  in  Bogota  are  exceedingly  con- 
servative and  are  still  doubtful  as  to  the  advisability  of  substituting 
American  merchandise  for  the  European  goods  whose  merits  they 
know.  Some  of  them  have  asked  for  and  failed  to  obtain  exclusive 
agency  privileges  for  certain  lines  of  American  merchandise,  and 
resent  the  fact  that  their  high  credit  rating  does  not  gain  for  them 
special  protection  and  privileges  not  accorded  to  the  newer  and 
smaller  firms. 

Before  the  war  the  Bogota  merchants  were  unfamiliar  with  Ameri- 
can goods,  and  were  inclined  to  view  American  trade  methods 
askance.  They  felt  that,  in  general,  European  staple  commodities 
were  superior  to  American,  and  they  resented  the  inattention  and 
general  ignorance  of  certain  American  exporters  and  manufacturers 
regarding  things  Colombian.  Europe  needed  the  Colombian  trade, 
and  usually  took  care  of  it  in  a  complete  and  detailed  fashion.  Pack- 
ing was  adapted  to  Colombian  transportation  and  customs  conditions; 
packing  lists  agreed  with  contents  of  packages;  special  brands  were 
marked  for  the  benefit  of  the  large  importers  of  textiles,  who  were 
protected  in  their  territories  for  those  particular  grades  or  designs 
of  goods;  long-term  credits  were  granted.  As  a  rule  textiles,  both 
cotton  and  woolen,  were  purchased  from  England,  fancy,  dry  goods 
from  France,  and  hardware  and  machinery  from  Germany. 

The  war  finally  forced  the  Bogota  importers  to  seek  trade  connec- 
tions with  the  United  States,  but  they  found  it  difficult  to  readjust 
themselves  to  American  methods  and  to  understand  the  restrictions 
imposed  on  American  business  by  the  war.  In  spite  of  these  diffi- 
culties, however,  American  goods  have  made  a  place  for  themselves 
in  the  Colombian  markets.  The  merchants  appreciate  the  advantages 
of  the  quicker  deliveries,  which  the  shorter  distance  from  New  York 
makes  possible,  and  their  customers  like  the  novelty  and  variety  of 
American  merchandise.  Nevertheless,  if  American  exporters  are  to 
retain  the  predominant  position  they  now  occupy  in  Colombian 
trade,  they  must  prepare  to  compete  with  the  older  and  more  expe- 
rienced European  firms  who  are  again  entering  the  field. 

MANIZALES  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

GEOGRAPHIC  POSITION  AND  AREA. 

The  Department  of  Caldas,  formerly  a  part  of  the  Department  of 
Antioquia,  is  in  the  central  part  of  the  inhabited  regions  of  Colombia. 
Its  territory  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  Central  Range  of  the  Andes, 
extending  from  the  Magdalena  River  (on  its  northeast  boundary) 
as  far  west  as  the  headwaters  of  the  San  Juan  River,  and  south,  in 
a  narrow  wedge  of  territory,  as  far  as  the  latitude  of  Girardot,  the 
Department  of  Tolima  lying  between  this  part  of  Caldas  and  the 
Magdalena  River.  The  Cauca  River  traverses  the  Department  from 
south  to  north  on  the  western  side  of  the  mountain  range. 

In  area  Caldas  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  Departments  of  Colombia, 
containing  only  7,915  square  miles  of  territory. 


256    c;()l,ombia:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 


TOPOGRAPHY. 


The  entire  Department  is  a  mass  of  mountains  and  hills,  except 
for  several  small  valleys  where  areas  of  rolling  land  are  found,  such 
as  that  around  the  town  of  Pereira,  in  a  small  interior  valley  on  the 
western  slope  of  the  Andes. 

The  principal  topoOTaphic  feature  of  this  Department  is  the  snow 
mountain  of  Ruiz,  which  lies  to  the  east  and  a  little  south  of  the 
town  of  Manizales  and  on  the  boundary  between  Caldas  and  Tolima. 
This  has  an  elevation  of  18,300  feet  and  is  covered  with  snow,  above 
16,000  feet,  all  the  year  round.  It  is  plainly  seen  on  clear  ddys  from 
the  river  port  of  La  Dorada.  The  main  trail  which  follows  the  new 
aerial  cableway  from  Mariquita  passes  to  the  north  of  this  mountain 
at  Soledad  and  Frutillo  and  crosses  the  range  at  an  elevation  of 
16,000  feet,  very  near  the  snow  line.  This  mountain  is  second  only 
to  the  peak  of  Tolima  (18,400  feet). 

The  entire  country  from  Mariquita  (in  the  Magdalena  Valley, 
where  the  hills  begin)  to  Manizales  and  as  far  west  as  Pereira  is  a 
mass  of  steep  mountains  with  very  little  good  land  and  all  more  or 
less  heavily  timbered.  There  is  little  agriculture  aside  from  the 
cultivation  of  coffee. 

On  the  eastern  slopes  there  are  a  few  good  mountain  streams,  the 
largest  of  which  is  the  Rio  Guali;  this  passes  toward  the  Magdalena 
River  through  a  great  canyon  over  wmch  the  cableway  passes  at  an 
elevation  of  3,000  feet  above  the  river.  This  river  joins  the  Mag- 
dalena at  the  town  of  Honda. 

In  the  rough,  hot  hills  out  from  Mariquita  there  are  few  inhabitants, 
but  higher  up,  at  elevations  of  6,000  to  12,000  feet,  are  several  small 
towns  such  as  Fresno  and  Soledad,  where  the  hillsides  are  utilized 
for  bananas,  yucca,  small  patches  of  sugar  cane,  and  cattle  pastures. 

The  main  body  of  the  population  appears  to  be  in  the  many  smaU 
towns  on  the  western  slope  around  Manizales. 


CUMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 


Climate  in  Caldas  is  a  matter  of  elevation.  The  eastern  and 
western  sides  of  the  Department — that  is,  at  Mariquita  in  the  Mag- 
dalena Valley  and  near  Cartago  on  the  west — are  tropical  and 
malarious. 

The  city  of  Manizales  (elevation  7,000  feet)  possesses  one  of  the 
best  climates  in  Colombia.  The  temperature  varies  very  little, 
and  the  nights  are  always  cool.  Woolen  suits,  with  light  under- 
clothing, are  worn  with  comfort,  and,  at  times,  a  light  overcoat 
may  be  desirable  in  the  evening. 

Seasons  are  variable,  but  may  be  said  to  be  four  in  number — 
two  rainy  seasons,  called  "invierno"  (winter),  and  two  dry  seasons, 
called  "verano"  (summer).  September,  October,  and  November 
are  wet  months,  while  December,  January,  and  February  are  dry 
months.  Rains  occur  during  March,  April,  and  May,  while  June, 
July,  and  August  are  dry  months. 

There  were  141  inches  of  rainfall  in  the  Manizales  district  during 
1918. 


ECONOMIC  CHAKACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.     257 
POPULATION,  RACIAL  CHARACTERISTICS,  AND  LIVING  CONDITIONS. 

The  Department  of  Caldas  is  divided  into  five  Provinces,  namely, 
Manizales,  Salamina,  Riosucio,  Pereira,  and  Manzanares.  The 
national  census  of  1896  gave  the  Department  a  total  population  of 
246,386,  while  that  of  1911  gave  the  figure  as  341,198.  The  census 
of  October,  1918,  gave  a  total  of  428,137,  of  which  the  municipality 
of  Manizales  had  43,203. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  Department  of  Caldas  are,  in  general,  much 
like  the  people  of  Antioquia  (see  p.  227).  However,  after  one  leaves 
Manizales  and  proceeds  down  the  western  side  of  the  range,  the 
character  of  the  people  varies  greatly.  In  the  lower  and  hotter 
lands  to  the  west  are  found  people  of  darker  skin,  and  many  Negroes 
are  seen.  These  "hot-country  inhabitants  are  not  so  industrious 
as  their  neighbors  of  the  mountains  around  Manizales,  and  a  great 
contrast  is  noted  in  the  construction  of  the  houses,  the  appearance 
of  the  fields,  and,  in  fact,  in  every  phase  of  life. 

In  Manizales  all  the  houses  are  of  wood,  with  frame  construction, 
except  the  ground-floor  stories  of  the  larger  buildings,  which,  in  some 
cases,  are  of  brick,  stone,  or  adobe.  Farther  down  the  western  slope 
and  as  one  approaches  Pereira,  bamboo  is  the  chief  material  used  tor 
construction  of  all  kinds.  Entire  houses,  including  the  roofs,  are 
made  of  this  material.  Many  large  groves  of  gigantic  bamboo  are 
seen,  and  even  fences  and  domestic  utensils  are  made  from  this  use- 
ful wood.  It  may  be  said  that  the  towns  of  Pereira  and  Cartago  are 
built  of  bamboo. 

GENERAL  ECONOMIC  FACTORS. 

Like  the  progressive  Antioquian,  the  Manizales  merchant  and  busi- 
ness man  is  branching  out  toward  the  Cauca  Vallev,  where  he  can 
find  level  and  accessible  land  for  agriculture  and  cattle  raising. 
However,  he  does  not  like  to  live  in  the  valley  (preferring  to  remam 
in  his  cool  mountains  at  Manizales)  and  only  makes  periodical  trips 
down  the  mountains  to  his  properties,  which  are  usually  in  charge  of 
managers  and  foremen. 

In  the  Department  of  Caldas,  the  land  seems  to  be  more  divided 
and  the  plantations  smaller  than  in  Antioquia  proper.  There  are 
a  greater  number  of  individual  owners  who  work  their  small  coffee 

f)lantations  themselves.  For  this  reason,  the  middle  class  is  much 
arger  than  in  other  districts,  and  its  members  became  prosperous 
during  1919  on  account  of  the  high  prices  received  for  coffee.  This 
condition  will  make  for  better  education  of  the  young  men  from  this 
class  and  will  also  create,  among  them  a  larger  demand  for  more  and 
better  articles  of  foreign  manufacture,  principally  agricultural  tools 
and  implements,  coffee-cleaning  machinery,  etc. 

The  wealthy  Manizales  merchant  and  business  man  does  not  live 
as  well,  nor  in  so  good  a  house,  as  his  compatriot  of  Medellin,  nor  is 
his  store  or  office  as  well  fitted  up.  Manizales  has  long  been  isolated 
from  the  outside  world  (even  from  the  rest  of  Colombia)  by  the 
mountains,  and  is,  therefore,  somewhat  old-fashioned.  Things  are 
still  on  a  scale  fitted  to  mule-pack  transportation. 

Traveling  salesmen  speak  very  well  of  Manizales  as  a  business 
center,  and  all  like  to  do  business  there  on  account  of  the  character 
of  the  people  and  the  sound  capital  of  the  business  houses,  which 

37558°— 21 17 


258-  COLOMBIA :  a  (X)mmkrcial  and  industrial  handbook. 

universally  enjoy  an  excellent  reputation  for  prompt  meeting  of  all 
obligations. 

CITY  OF  MANIZALES. 

Manizalcs  is  built  on  a  low  ridge  extending  from  the  Andes — a 
"mesa"  or  table-land  of  slightly  rolling  character.  The  formation 
is  volcanic,  with  a  cap  of  red  clay  mixed  with  decomposed  volcanic 
ash  and  porphyry. 

On  each  side  of  the  town  are  two  small  rivers  from  which  the  water 
supply  is  obtained.  Most  large  houses  are  equipped  with  running 
water,  piped  into  the  building.  The  streets  are  narrow,  paved  with 
cobblestones,  and  slightly  hilly.  Although  all  houses  and  buildings  are 
of  wood,  they  are  all  covered  and  plastered  with  lime  and  mud  stucco, 
so  that,  with  few  exceptions,  they  look  just  like  the  buildings  ,com- 
mon  throughout  Latin  America.  There  are  a  number  of  buildings  of 
two  and  even  three  stories  in  Manizales. 

education. 

There  are  248  schools  in  the  Department  of  Caldas,  with  a  total 
annual  attendance  of  about  25,000  pupils  in  the  lower  grades — or 
7.6  per  cent  of  the  whole  population.  In  1918  the  school  budget 
amounted  to  $267,963.  There  is  no  higher  school  or  college  in  Mani- 
iales  of  any  note,  as  compared  with  those  in  Medellin  and  Bogota, 
and  most  of  the  young  men  of  the  better  families  go  to  one  or  the 
other  of  the  last-named  cities  for  their  courses  in  the  professions. 

PUBLICATIONS. 

The  one  daily  newspaper  of  any  importance  in  Manizales  is  the 
Renacimiento,  with  two  pages,  which  reprints  foreign  cables  and 
news  from  Bogota  and  carries  considerable  local  advertising  matter. 
Its  circulation  is  about  4,000,  including  copies  mailed  to  the  siAaller 
towns  of  the  interior. 

Manizales  had,  a  few  years  ago,  a  well-organized  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, which  was  assisted  financially  by  the  National  Government 
and  which  published  an  excellent  Boletin  Estadistica,  containing  all 
new  laws,  as  well  as  production  statistics  of  coffee,  "panela"  (brown 
sugar),  imports  and  exports  of  all  merchandise,  etc.;  but,  unfortu- 
nately, this  publication  has  been  suspended  recently  on  account  of 
lack  of  funds  from  the  National  Government.  However,  the  depart- 
mental government  has  recently  organized  a  statistical  division. 
New  and  larger  offices  are  being  provided,  and  trained  men  are 
making  trips  throughout  the  department  to  gather  first-hand  infor- 
mation. The  Caldas  government  has  its  own  printing  and  book- 
binding establishment  and  is  turning  out  some  very  attractive  work. 

BANKING. 

Manizales  has  two  local,  native  banks  and  one  branch  of  a  foreign 
bank.  The  last-mentioned  is  the  Banco  Mercantil  Americano  de 
Colombia  (Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas),  affiliated  with  the 
Mercantile  Overseas  Corporation,  of  New  York.  The  two  native 
banks  are  the  Banco  de  Kuiz,  with  a  capital  of  140,000  Colombian 
doUars  (established  in  1916),  and  the  Banco  de  Caldas  (Banco  de 
Manizales),  with  a  capital  of  400,000  Colombian  dollars  (established 
in  1915).     (Colombian  dollar  =  $0.9733.) 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      259 

The  Banco  de  Ruiz  earned  a  net  profit  of  42,329  Colombian  dollars 
during  the  first  half  of  1919  and  paid  its  stockholders  the  sum  of 
25,200  Colombian  dollars  in  dividiends  for  this  six  months.  This 
bank  has  recently  established  a  mortgage  section,  and  has  also  loaned 
the  departmental  government  the  sum  of  200,000  Colombian  dollars 
for  the  purpose  of  pushing  the  construction  work  on  the  Ferrocarril 
de  Caldas  (Caldas  Railway) .  The  Banco  de  Caldas  is  also  interested 
in  the  loan  to  the  Department  and  is  cooperating  with  the  Banco  de 
Ruiz  in  the  work  of  its  mortgage-loan  department. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  great  and  rapid  progress  being  made  by 
these  hanking  concerns,  there  are  shown  below  the  figures  for  the 
capital  and  reserve  fund  of  the  Banco  de  Caldas  since  1915: 


Date. 

Capital. 

Reserve 
fund. 

Date. 

Capital. 

Reserve 
fund. 

Dec.  23, 1915 

Colombian 
dollars. 
200,000 
200,000 
350,000 
400,000 

CoUymbian 

doUars. 

12,184  , 

36,000 

63,828 

200,000 

Dec.  31, 1917 

Colombian 
dollars. 
400,000 
400,000 
400,000 
400,000 

Colombian 
dollars. 
250,000 

July  25, 1916 

June  30, 1918 

310,000 

Dec.  31,  1916 

Dec.31,1918 

370,000 

July  1,1917 

June  30, 1919 

430,000 

The  Banco  de  Caldas  has  loaned  the  Department  of  Caldas  400,000 
Colombian  dollars  for  the  construction  of  the  Ferrocarril  de  Caldas, 
of  which  sum  the  Department  had,  in  September,  1919,  300,000 
dollars  still  on  hand. 

To  give  some  idea  of  what  the  coffee  situation  in  1919  meant  for 
the  entire  country,  and  especially  for  Caldas  and  Antioquia,  the 
following  figures  may  be  cited  from  the  ledger  of  the  Banco  de 
Caldas.  During  the  entire  year  of  1918  this  bank  did  a  business  of 
13,800,000  Colombian  doUars,  in  round  numbers.  During  the  single 
month  of  July,  1919,  the  same  bank  did  a  total  business  amounting 
to  more  than  14,000,000  dollars.  July  was  undoubtedly  the  highest 
month  in  1919,  on  account  of  its  being  the  end  of  the  coffee  season, 
but  this  shows  the  phenomenal  increase  in  all  business  and  points  to 
the  extraordinary  prosperity  of  this  section  of  the  country.  The 
same  is  true  of  all  coffee-producing  sections  of  Colombia,  such  as 
Antioquia,  Santander,  Cundinamarca,  and  Tolima,  and  is  one  of  the 
best  reasons  why  American  exporters  and  manufacturers  should  culti- 
vate these  markets  locally  and  make  every  effort  to  obtain  this  trade 
and  hold  it  for  the  future. 

There  has  been  an  increase  in  the  circulating  medium  in  the  De- 
partment from  about  1,000,000  Colombian  doUars  in  paper  money 
to  the  present  estimate  of  &,000,000  to  8,000,000  doUars,  aU  but 
about  1,000,000  dollars  of  which  is  in  gold  coin. 

Local  banks  earn  an  average  profit  on  their  capital  and  reserve 
funds  of  20  per  cent  per  annum.  Rates  of  interest  were  much 
reduced  during  1918  and  1919,  and  commercial  money  can  now  be 
obtained  for  as  low  as  12  per  cent  per  annum. 

All  banks  and  capitalists  of  the  district  are  cooperating  in  industrial 
development  and  are  also  assisting  the  Department  in  its  work  on 
the  new  Ferrocarril  de  Caldas,  wMch  will  give  the  Department  an 
outlet  to  the  Pacific  via  the  Upper  Cauca  River  to  Call  and  from  there 
to  the  Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura,  over  the  FerrocarrU  del  Pacifico. 


260      COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
PRINCIPAL  CITIES  AND  COMMERCIAL  TERRITORY. 

Manizales,  though  situated  in  the  high  mountains,  is  the  center  of 
all  commercial  activity  on  the  western  side  of  the  range  and  is,  to  a 
very  great  extent,  the  wholesaling  center  for  the  territory  as  far  to 
the  south  and  west  as  Cartago,  Buga,  Tulua,  Palmira,  and  even  Cali. 
Three  or  four  small  towns  of  the  Department  of  Caldas  that  are 
situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  mountains  buy  retail  stocks  of 

fjoods  in  Honda;  these  towns  are  Manzanares,  San  Augustin,  Maru- 
andia,  and  Pensilvania.  Traffic  between  Honda  and  these  towns 
is  by  means  of  pack  animals  up  the  hills  through  the  town  of 
Victoria,  which  also  is  in  Caldas.  The  aggregate  of  this  eastern 
business  is  very  small  compared  with  that  of  Manizales. 

The  reasons  for  the  dommation  of  trade  by  Manizales  over  so  large 
a  district  lie  in  the  greater  energy  and  better  foreign  import  relations 
of  the  Manizales  merchants,  as  well  as  in  their  larger  capital  and 
better  facilities  for  giving  long-term  credits,  as  compared  with  the 
merchants  of  the  Cauca  district,  of  which  Cali  is  the  headquarters. 

There  are  to-day  about  50  importing  business  houses  in  Manizales 
and  an  annual  amount  of  approximately  2,000,000  Colombian  dollars 
in  credits  is  carried  on  the  books  of  the  Manizales  merchants  with 
smaller  dealers  of  the  interior  and  of  the  Cauca  Valley. 

Another  important  town  in  Caldas  is  Armenia,  in  the  extreme 
southern  part  of  the  Department.  The  importance  of  Armenia 
arises  from  its  location  in  the  heart  of  the  rich  coffee-producing  region 
of  the  "Quindio"  and  the  fact  that  it  lies  between  two  important 
districts  and  on  the  route  between  them — namely,  the  upper  Cauca 
Valley  (Cali)  and  Ibague,  the  capital  of  Tolima,  now  on  the  route 
to  Bogota  from  west  to  east.  Most  of  the  "Quindio"  coffee  moves 
through  Armenia  and  out  to  the  Magdalena  River  through  Ibague 
and  Girardot. 

Transportation  is  by  pack  animal  as  far  as  the  railhead  of  the 
Ferrocarril  de  Tolima  now  being  built  from  a  point  opposite  Girardot 
toward  Ibague;  and  this  is  also  the  famous  "Quindio"  route  from 
Bogota  to  the  Pacific  Coast,  via  Ibague,  Salento,  Armenia,  and  thence 
down  the  western  side  of  the  Andes  to  the  town  of  Zarzal,  where  tliis 
route  joins  the  land  route  from  Cartago  to  Cali.  An  automobile 
stage  fine  makes  connections  at  the  snaall  town  of  Buga  la  Grande 
and  runs  into  Palmira,  where  there  is  rail  service  into  Cali.  The  ride 
from  Ibague  to  Buga  takes  three  to  four  days,  depending  on  saddle 
animals,  weight  of  packs,  and  other  factors. 

VOLUME  OF  BUSINESS.  / 

The  volume  of  business  in  the  Manizales  district  can  always  be 
fairly  well  estimated  every  year  by  calculations  based  on  the  pro- 
duction of  coffee  and  its  average  prices  during  the  dehvery  seasons. 
After  deducting  expenses  of  picking,  cleaning,  and  packing  to  local 
market  centers  such  as  Manizales  and  Armenia,  it  may  be  said  that 
the  coffee  producers  of  Caldas  received,  during  the  first  half  of  1919, 
a  total  of  about  6,000,000  Colombian  dollars.  This  amount  may 
also  be  estimated  to  represent  the  approximate  total  for  imports 
of  foreign  merchandise  into  this  Department  during  1919,  the  coffee 
harvest  and  prices  having  a  direct  and  immediate  effect  on  the 
volume  of  purchases  of  foreign  goods  every  year.     In  other  words, 


V 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      261 

Caldas    (that  is,    the  merchants   of  Manizales)    bought   about  four 
times  as  many  foreign  goods  in  1919  as  in  former  good  years. 

MANUFACTURING. 

Because  of  the  lack  of  easy  and  cheap  transportation  and  the  rough 
nature  of  the  country,  the  Department  of  Caldas  has  few  factories, 
and  none  of  these  are  very  large.  The  principal  industrial  develop- 
ment will  be  the  establishment  in  the  near  future  in  Manizales  of  a 
large  cotton  mill  in  which  local  and  Medellin  capital  is  interested. 

The  sum  of  000,000  Colombian  dollars  has  recently  been  subscribed 
in  Manizales  and  Medellin  for  this  new  factory  to  be  located  in 
Manizales,  and  the  work  will  be  in  charge  of  experienced  cotton-mill 
people  from  Medellin.  The  plant  will  be  operated  by  electric  power 
lurnished  by  the  municipal  lighting  plant,  which  is  planning  an 
additional  unit  of  200  horsepower  to  talse  care  of  this  new  load. 

The  new  plant  will  include  a  complete  and  modern  yam-spinning 
department. 

A  survey  by  experts  from  Medellin  showed  an  abundance  of  labor 
in  Manizales,  as  well  as  low  construction  cost  of  buildings,  etc.  It  is 
hoped  to  introduce  cotton  in  the  Cauca  Valley  and  to  provide  the 
raw  material  from  this  source.  In  the  meantime  cotton  will  be 
imported  from  the  United  States,  coming  up  the  Magdalena  River 
from  Barranquilla  and  into  Manizales  over  the  cableway  (see  p.  263). 

The  smaller  factories  now  established  in  the  Department  of  Caldas 
are  mentioned  below: 

The  Cia.  Fosforera  Colombiana,  at  Manizales,  turns  out  400  gross 
of  boxes  of  matches  per  week.  It  has  a  capital  of  100,000  Colombian 
dollars.     It  imports  phosphorus,  wicking,  wax,  cardboard,  labels,  etc. 

In  Salamina  the  flour  mill  of  R.  Restrepo  e  Hijos  has  a  capital  of 
50,000  Colombian  dollars  and  produces  300  to  400  arrobas  (of  25 
pounds  each)  of  flour  daily,  in  Salento  there  is  the  flour  mill  of 
A.  Herrera,  with  a  capital  of  20,000  Colombian  dollars. 

The  factory  "La  Estrella,"  in  Salamina,  has  a  capital  of  40,000 
Colombian  dollars  and  turns  out  20,000  candles  of  paraflfin  and 
stearine  daily,  as  well  as  80  arrobas  of  soap.  It  has  12  workmen. 
There  is  another  very  small  candle  factory  in  Montenegro. 

In  Armenia  is  the  soda-water  factory  oi  M.  Calle,  having  a  capital 
of  3,000  Colombian  dollars  and  employing  four  workmen. 

Two  small  factories  in  Manizales  making  sacks  and  carpets  from 
henequen  fiber  are  those  of  Uribe  y  Cia.,  with  a  capital  of  5,000 
Colombian  dollars,  and  of  J.  Soto,  with  a  capital  of  1,000  Colombian 
dollars. 

In  manufacturing,   possibly  the  hat-making  industry  is,   at   the 

E resent  time,  the  largest  in  this  Department.  A  kinci  of  Panama 
at  is  made,  like  those  of  iVntioquia  and  Santander.  Tliis  class  of 
hat  is  universally  worn  by  the  country  people  and  those  of  the  poorer 
classes.  During  1917  the  single  town  of  Aguadas  produced  250,000 
hats,  for  which  the  makers  received  an  average  price  of  1  Colombian 
dollar  each.  Hats  are  made  in  the  houses  of  the  poorer  people,  the 
entire  family  working  in  the  preparation  of  the  fiber  and  m  weaving 
the  hats. 

The  prevailing  type,  or  style,  of  hat  does  not  accord  with  European 
or  American  ideas;  the  crown  is  too  low,  too  small,  and  slightly 
"peaked,"  while  the  brim  is  too  narrow.     Inquiries  were  made  with 


262    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industriaj^  handbook. 

a  view  to  ascertaining  what  could  be  accomplished  in  the  way  of 
organizing  this  industry  for  exportation  of  hats  to  foreign  markets, 
but  the  difficulty  was  said  to  be  the  reluctance  of  the  country  and 
small-town  people  to  change  their  designs,  and  it  was  agreed  that  it 
would  take  a  great  deal  of  effort  to  get  them  to  make  other  types  of 
hats.  People  from  Medellin  secured  measurements  and  quality 
requirements  for  the  popular  style  of  Panama  hat  so  generally  worn 
in  the  United  States  during  the  summer  months,  ana  thev  arc  now 
engaged  in  stimulating  the  manufacture  of  these  hats  for  export 
throughout  the  Departments  of  Caldas  and  Antioquia. 

It  is  a  question  whether  the  extra  returns  obtainable  from  a  larger 
and  finer  grade  of  hat  will  repay  the  people  for  the  extra  time  and 
labor  involved. 

TRANSPORTATION. 

r 

Lying  between  the  Magdalena  and  Cauca  Rivers,  the  Department 
of  Cfaldas  and  its  commercial  center,  Manizales,  are  served  indirectly 
by  these  two  water  routes  to  the  east  and  to  the  west,  but,  at  the 

E resent  time,  a  considerable  part  of  the  intervening  distance  must 
e  covered  bv  pack  mules  or  pack  oxen. 

The  logical  outlet  for  Manizales  and  the  populous  districts  of  the 
Department  would  seem  to  be  to  the  west,  to  connect  with  Cali  and 
the  port  of  Buenaventura  on  the  Pacific  over  the  Ferrocarril  del 
Pacifico.  This  railway  has  now  built  out  from  Cali  as  far  as  Palmira 
toward  the  north,  and  a  fairly  good  wagon  road  is  now  in  operation 
from  Palmira  as  far  as  Ovedo,  about  80  miles  in  the  direction  of  Car- 
tage, the  objective  of  the  railway.  The  total  distance  (estimated) 
from  Palmira  to  Cartago  is  only  130  miles,  and  the  ground  traversed 
is  practically  level  all  the  way  to  Cartago,  though  there  are  com- 
paratively few  inhabitants  except  for  a  number  of  small  towns  along 
the  Cauca  River.  (Seep.  410.)  The  total  distance,  by  trail,  from 
Manizales  to  Cartago  is  estimated  at  60  miles,  but  the  elevation  is 
from  3,000  feet  at  Cartago  to  7,000  feet  at  Manizales,  and  the  country 
is  very  rough  and  broken,  except  around  Pereira,  where  there  is  some 

food,  open,  rolling  land  for  a  short  distance.  After  one  leaves 
'ereira,  the  country  becomes  very  broken,  and  some  engineering 
problems,  such  as  bridges  and  tunnels  as  well  as  large  fills,  will  be  en- 
countered on  the  new  railway  now  being  constructed  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Caldas  from  Puerto  Caldas  on  tne  Cauca  River  to  Manizales 
via  Pereira. 

Construction  work  on  the  wagon  road  from  Ovedo  to  Cartago  is 
being  pushed  by  the  Department  of  El  Valle,  but  it  will  take  several 
years  to  complete  this  important  highway. 

RIVER   NAVIGATION. 

There  are  at  the  present  time  six  small  steel  river  steamers  on  the 
Cauca  River,  averaging  60  tons  dead-weight  carrying  capacity. 
Service  is  maintained  for  about  half  of  the  year,  there  being  two 
seasons  when  the  boats  have  to  be  laid  up,  waiting  for  better  water 
conditions. 

The  total  distance  served  on  the  river,  by  actual  river  distance, 
is  estimated  at  300  kilometers,  or  approximately  187  miles — between 
the  river  port  of  Mallarino,  6^  kilometers  below  Cali,  and  the  port  of 
La  Virginia,  about  10  kilometers  below  Cartago.     Cartago  is  not  on 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     263 

the  Cauca  River,  but  on  the  Rio  La  Vieja,  the  river  port  for  Cartago 
being  La  Fresneda,  about  2  kilometers  from  Cartago  proper. 

Freight  going  to  Manizales  from  Buenaventura  comes  up  to 
Cali  over  the  Ferrocarril  del  Pacifico,  thence  down  to  the  river  at 
Mallarino,  6^  kilometers  below  Cali,  by  means  of  a  small  steam 
tramway,  thence  down  the  Cauca  River  by  steamer  to  the  port  of 
Caldas,  the  terminus  of  the  Ferrocarril  de  Caldas,  and  thence  15 
kilometers  on  this  line,  whence  the  merchandise  is  taken  into  Mani- 
zales on  pack  mules  and  pack  oxen — a  journey  of  four  to  five  days, 
depending  upon  the  weather  and  the  consequent  state  of  the  moun- 
tain trail. 

Some  freight  is  now  moving  into  Manizales  over  this  route,  which 
is  being  developed,  and  it  is  hoped  that  transportation  by  it  will  be 
cheaper  and  more  rapid  than  by  way  of  the  Magdalena  River  route 
and  the  cableway  from  Mariquita,  on  account  of  the  shorter  distance 
and  the  better  country  traversed.  Alejandro  Angel  &  Co.  (Inc.), 
of  New  York  and  Colombia,  owners  of  tne  Caribbean  Steamship  Co. 
and  the  Colombian  Maritime  Co.  (Balboa  to  Buenaventura) ,  and  also 
the  largest  stockholders  of  the  Cia.  Fluvial  de  Transportes  de  Mani- 
zales (owning  three  steamers  on  the  Cauca  River  and  now  in  the 
market  for  three  more  boats  for  this  traffic) ,  are  very  much  interested 
in  the  development  of  this  route  to  Manizales,  and  their  subsidiary 
company,  the  Uni6n  Comercial  del  Pacifico,  of  Cali,  is  handling 
freight  for  Manizales  over  this  route. 

Tne  connecting  links  will  be  provided  by  the  completion  of  the 
autjmobile  road  to  Cartago  and  of  the  Ferrocarril  de  Caldas  into 
Manizales.  The  railway  was  expected  to  reach  Pereira  early  in  1920, 
and  Pereira  will  be  for  many  years  the  ti'ail  shipping  point  to  Mani- 
zales for  goods  coming  in  from  Buenaventura.  The  wagon  road 
from  Palmira  will  be  used  when  the  river  is  dry. 

A  comparison  of  freight  costs  was  made  between  (1)  the  route 
via  the  Magdalena  River,  the  cableway  from  Mariquita,  and  pack 
animals  into  Manizales  from  the  east,  and  (2)  the  western  route  above 
outlined.  It  was  found  that  at  the  present  time  the  cost  of  freight 
over  the  Pacific  (western)  route  is  slightly  higher,  but  that  this  route 
wiU  ultimately  have  the  great  advantage  of  quicker  delivery,  on  ac- 
count of  the  better  grades. 

THE   CABLEWAY. 

The  cableway  above  mentioned  is  operated  by  the  Dorada  Exten- 
sion Railway  (Ropeway  Branch),  having  a  capital  of  £220,000 
($1,070,630)  of  £5  shares,  of  an  authorized  issue  of  250,000  shares. 
The  original  company  is  known  as  the  Dorada  Ropeway  Extension 
(Ltd.) ,  and  the  majority  of  the  stock  is  held  by  the  Dorada  Extension 
Railway  (Ltd.),  oi  London,  England.  The  gross  receipts  for  1915 
were  £7,530  (S36,645)  and  the  operating  expenses  £5,500  ($26,766). 
During  1916,  after  the  line  had  reached  approximately  halfway  to 
Manizales  from  Mariquita,  the  gross  receipts  increased  to  about 
£25,000  ($121,663),  and  there  was  a  substantial  net  increase.  This 
company  was  incorporated  in  1912,  and  the  construction  of  this 
aerial  cableway  has  been  carried  on  during  the  past  six  years. 

The  cableway  line  begins  at  Mariquita  Station  on  the  Dorada 
Extension  Railway  51  kilometers  (1  kdometer  =  0.62  mile)  from  La 
Dorada  and  60  kilometers  from  the  river  port  of  Beltran  on  the 


264    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

Upper  Magdalena  River.     The  Dorada  Extension  Railwa;^  shops 
are  located  at  Mariquita.     The  distance  hy  cableway  to  Frutillo,  the 

f)resent  end  of  the  cableway  line,  is  37  kilometers,  almost  in  an  air 
ine,  but  the  distance  by  trail  is  much  greater,  the  ride  by  mule- 
back  taking  more  than  a  day.  The  elevation  at  Mariquita  is 
approximately  3,300  feet  above  sea  level,  while  the  station  at  Fru- 
tillo has  an  approximate  elevation  of  12,000  feet. 

The  cable  is  carried  on  a  system  of  steel  towers  located  at  points  of 
"contact"  in  crossing  the  high  mountain  ridges.  These  towers  carry 
an  arm  on  which  the  double  pulleys  carrying  the  cable  are  placed. 
The  cable  is  carried  around  drums  at  each  ena  of  the  line,  the  steam- 
power  station  being  located  at  Frutillo.  The  cable  is  a  moving 
cableway — that  is,  the  cable  itself  runs  up  and  down  on  each  side  of 
the  towers,  the  cargo  slings  being  suspended  from  the  cable  by  a 
patent  arrangement  which  provides  for  their  automatic  release  upon 
reaching  the  unloading  station.  At  the  point  of  suspension  on  the 
cable  itself  these  carriages  have  a  double  set  of  sheaves  which  "  ride  " 
the  pulleys  of  the  tower  arms  upon  passing  over  these  latter  when  in 
motion. 

Power  is  provided  at  Frutillo,  consisting  of  a  35-horsepower  steam 
engine,  actuating  the  drum  over  which  the  end  of  the  caole  passes. 

New  tower  construction  is  now  completed  as  far  as  the  highest 
point  on  the  "paramo"  to  be  crossed  by  this  line  to  reach  Manizales, 
this  point  being  about  20  kilometers  (12  miles)  from  Frutillo.  The 
total  length  of  the  line  when  completed  will  be  approximately  75 
kilometers  (46  miles),  or  the  longest  cableway  in  the  world. 

The  principal  cargo  handled  by  this  cableway  consists  of  coffee 
from  the  Manizales  district  and  merchandise  for  Manizales  moving 
in  from  the  Magdalena  River  route. 

CALDAS    KAILWAY. 

The  construction  of  the  new  railway,  the  Ferrocarril  de  Caldas,  was 
begun  by  the  Department  of  Caldas  in  1917,  but  only  during  1918  and 
1919  has  the  work  progressed  to  any  great  extent.  The  object  of 
this  new  line  is  to  connect  Manizales  with  river  navigation  on  the 
Cauca  River  (at  Puerto  Caldas)  and  thereby  with  Call  and  the  Pacific 
coast  over  the  Ferrocarril  del  Pacifico.  Plans  also  call  for  the  ex- 
tension of  the  line  to  the  north  to  connect  with  the  Ferrocarril  de 
Amaga  now  bein^  built  south  from  Medellin  to  the  Cauca  River,  but 
this  latter  work  is  an  enterprise  for  the  future.  The  work  is  being 
done  by  the  Department  of  Caldas  mainly  with  its  own  funds,  aided 
by  a  subvention  from  the  National  Government  of  15,000  Colombian 
dollars  per  kilometer. 

The  number  of  kilometers  constructed  and  in  operation  in  the  fall 
of  1919  was  about  16.  The  number  of  kilometers  graded  was  21. 
The  gauge  is  36  inches.  The  rails  weigh  55  pounds  per  yard. 
The  maximum  gradient  allowed  is  2  per  cent,  and  the  minimum 
curve  radius  16  degrees. 

The  rolling  stoclc  includes  two  locomotives  of  20  tons  capacity, 
one  locomotive  of  40  tons  capacity,  one  second-class  passenger  car, 
nine  similar  cars  now  on  order,  five  freight  cars  of  15  tons  capacity 
now  on  order,  five  freight  cars  (box  type)  in  use,  six  flat  cars  of  15 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      265 

tons  now  in  use,  two  cattle  cars  of  12  head  each,  two  push  hand  cars 
for  road  work,  and  four  similar  hand  cars  on  order. 

The  Department  of  Caldas  has  been  supplying  its  needs  for  this 
new  railway  through  two  export  commission  houses  in  New  York. 
The  reason  for  this  method  of  buying  is  that  these  commission  houses 
grant  the  Department  six  months'  credit  for  all  materials  and  ma- 
chinery ordered  through  them,  and  at  the  same  time  they  know  how 
to  pack  and  ship  the  goods  ordered. 

Up  to  December  31,  1918,  the  total  cost  of  this  railway  was  665,719 
Colombian  dollars.  The  total  amount  owed  by  the  Department 
for  the  railway  was  227,683  dollars.  The  assistance  given  to  the 
railway  by  the  Department  amounted  to  473,678  dollars,  while  the 
subvention  from  the  National  Government  totaled  225,000  dollars. 

The  Department  of  Caldas  has  a  proposition,  approved  by  the 
Assembly,  for  securing  a  2,000,000-dollar  foreign  loan  to  be  used  ex- 
clusively for  the  active  work  on  this  railway.  This  loan  would  be 
guaranteed  by  the  railway  and  by  various  departmental  revenues. 
The  entire  product  of  the  ''renta  del  tabaco,"  or  tobacco  tax,  a  mo- 
nopoly of  the  Department,  amounting  to  an  average  of  28,830 
Colombian  dollars  monthly,  is  at  present  assigned  to  the  railway  work. 

It  is  hoped  that  when  this  railway  line  reaches  Pereira  the  gross 
receipts  will  be  very  greatly  increased,  as  the  railway  will  then  pass 
through  a  populous  and  prosperous  district.  This  line  should  pay 
very  well  between  the  Cauca  Kiver  and  Pereira. 

DEPARTMENTAL  FINANCES. 

The  total  revenues  of  the  Department  of  Caldas  in  1911  amounted 
to  379,333  Colombian  dollars,  while  in  1918  these  had  increased  to 
1,014,524  Colombian  dollars.  The  total  revenues  for  1919  were  cal- 
culated at  1,068,428  Colombian  dollars.  The  expenses  of  the  De- 
partment during  1918  amounted  to  the  total  of  all  revenues. 

The  railway  earnings  in  1918  amounted  to  a  total  of  7,763  Colom- 
bian dollars,  while  the  total  operating  expenses  were  4,340  dollars, 
leaving  net  earnings,  for  15  kilometers,  of  3,423  dollars. 

AGRICULTURE. 

The  Department  of  Caldas  produces  a  variety  of  agricultural  prod- 
ucts, chief  among  these  being  coffee,  wheat,  potatoes,  com,  beans, 
sugar  cane,  bananas,  yucca  ("casaba"),  and  cacao.  Some  tobacco 
is  also  grown,  but  in  small  quantities. 


As  in  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  this  region's  chief  product  is 
coffee.  Coffee  is  the  salvation  of  this  land  of  volcanic  mountains  and 
varied  climatic  conditions.  In  Caldas  the  plantations  are  all  small; 
a  large  plantation  has  only  40,000  trees,  and  there  are  few  that  have 
25,000.  Official  statistics  for  1911  gave  the  total  number  of  trees 
in  Caldas  as  6,600,000,  of  which  5,000,000  were  full  grown.  The  pro- 
duction was  given  as  about  150,000  sacks.  In  the  1918-19  harvest 
season  the  production  was  220,000  sacks,  which,  at  an  average  of 
H  pounds  per  year  per  tree,  would  give  a  total  number  of  trees  in 
the  Department  of  20,000,000. 


266     COLOMBIA  :   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Production  of  cofiFee  is  a  matter  of  soil,  combined  with  climate  and 
care  of  the  trees.  The  average  production  is  said  to  be  1  pound  per 
year — increased  in  many  places  to  as  high  as  2J^  pounds  per  tree  per 
year  on  account  of  better  soil,  climate,  or  cultivation.  Manizales 
coffee  grades  as  high  as  Medellin,  which  is  better  than  Tolima,  San- 
tander,  and  Cundinamarca  coffee.  This  grade,  known  as  "Medellin" 
in  the  New  York  market,  always  commands  a  few  cents  per  pound 
more  in  price. 

Departmental  authorities  state  that  the  planting  of  coffee  trees 
has  been  stimulated  to  a  very  great  extent  oy  the  favorable  condi- 
tions obtaining  during  1919  and  that  an  increase  of  at  least  40  per 
cent  can  be  expected  in  due  time. 

The  largest  coffee-producing  district  of  Caldas  is  the  "Quindio,"  of 
which  the  town  of  Armenia  is  the  center. 

LABOR   SITUATION. 

From  all  reports  it  would  appear  as  if  at  certain  seasons  of  the 
year  there  were  a  labor  shortage  in  the  Department  of  Caldas.  This 
is  due  to  the  fact  (already  mentioned)  that  property  is  divided  into 
small  plantations  and  there  are  many  thousands  of  families  owning 
and  working  very  small  pieces  of  ground,  just  sufficient  for  their  own 
support.  Tnese  people  will  not  work  by  the  day  for  others  except 
at  certain  times  of  the  year  when  their  own  plantations  do  not  require 
their  attention.  Hence,  during  the  coffee  season  there  is  a  shortage 
of  labor,  and  men  have  to  be  brought  in  from  Antioquia  to  the  north 
and  from  even  as  far  away  as  Cundinamarca  and  Boyaca,  where  there 
is  an  oversupply  of  common  labor  and  wages  are  much  lower.  This 
imported  and  local  labor  earned  during  the  coffee  harvest  of  1919 
(March,  April,  and  May)  as  high  as  $1.25  per  day,  an  unprecedented 
wage  for  tnis  region. 

This  same  condition  also  applied  to  the  new  railway  work  of  the 
departmental  government.  Not  .enough  men  could  be  secured  in 
the  Department  for  that  work  (2,000  men  were  wanted),  and  agents 
were  sent  to  bring  in  contract  labor  from  Cundinamarca  and  Boyaca. 
However,  though  better  wages  were  paid  than  in  their  own  districts, 
these  men  proved  a  failure  so  far  as  creating  any  large  body  of  effi- 
cient labor  in  Caldas  was  concerned.  Many  of  them  dropped  out  on 
the  way  across  the  mountains  and  returned  home  as  best  tney  could, 
and  the  few  who  arrived  at  the  work  soon  became  sick  in  the  lower 
altitude  and  hotter  climate. 

The  average  "peon"  (laborer)  does  not  like  to  work  in  the  coffee 
plantations  on  account  of  the  malaria  sure  to  be  contracted  there, 
and  the  better  workers  of  the  higher  elevations  do  not  go  down  to 
the  plantations  if  they  can  avoid  it.  The  average  wage  for  a  10-hour 
day  paid  on  the  railway  work  is  $0,691.  This  is  the  labor  factor 
taken  in  figuring  the  cost  of  dirt  work,  etc. 

LIVE  STOCK. 

The  town  of  Pereira  is  the  center  of  the  cattle-raising  industry  for 
the  Department  of  Caldas.  The  estimated  number  of  head  of  beef 
cattle  is  about  350,000,  valued  at  about  $6,000,000.  There  arc  said 
to  be  about  170,000  steers  in  addition  to  the  number  mentioned. 
There  are  about  52,000  horses  and  13,000  mules. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     267 

As  in  Antioquia  and  elsewhere  in  the  Cauca  Valley,  artificial  pas- 
turage is  planted  in  cleared  fields  for  cattle  raising.  It  may  be  esti- 
mated that  there  are  about  150,000  hectares  (1  hectare  =  2.471  acres) 
imder  fence  and  in  pasture  in  the  Department  of  Caldas. 


Official  statistics  for  1918  give  the  number  of  tobacco  plants  in  the 
Department  as  3,320,450,  in  2,155  plantations.  During  1918  Caldas 
exported  to  other  Departments  50,708  kilos  (kilo  =  2.2046  pounds) 
of  raw  tobacco,  principally  to  Antioquia,  El  Valle,  Tolima,  and  the 
Choco,  for  which  the  Department  collected  a  tax  of  28,921  Colombian 
dollars.  During  the  same  period  Caldas  imported  from  other  Depart- 
ments 91,154  kilos  of  tobacco  of  all  classes,  including  manufactured, 
for  which  the  Department  collected  a  rental  of  58,633  Colombian 
dollars. 

MINING. 

Next  to  coffee,  mining  may  be  said  to  be  the  most  important  indus- 
try of  the  Department  of  Caldas.  During  1918,  31  new  mines,  or 
claims,  were  located  in  Caldas.  AH  but  one  of  these  new  claims  w^ere 
for  vein  mines.  Eighteen  claims  were  relocations  of  old  mines,  or 
claims,  the  others  being  for  new  discoveries.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  all  claims  were  taten  out  in  the  name  of  native  Colombians. 
This  is  due  to  the  new  mining  laws  of  the  Colombian  Government, 
which  prohibit  foreigners,  whose  countries  do  not  allow  reciprocal 
privileges  to  Colombians  for  the  location  of  claims,  from  locating 
mining  property  in  Colombia.  This  restriction  regarding  foreigners 
is  circumvented,  by*  having  some  trusted  Colombian  agent  locate  the 
mine,  or  mines,  in  his  name.  Mining  property  may  be  transferred  to 
foreigners  by  Colombian  citizens  witn  the  express  consent  of  the 
National  Government. 

During  1918  there  were  abaiidoned  in  Caldas,  for  non-payment  of 
taxes,  62  mining  claims,  of  which  9  were  gold  placer  claims  and  the 
rest  were  all  given  as  veins  of  gold  and  silver.  During  the  same 
year  14  titles  to  mining  claims  were  authenticated  by  the  Govern- 
ment, of  which  2  claims  were  new-vein  mines,  10  old-vein  mines, 
and  1  an  old  placer  mine. 

At  the  present  time  there  are  two  mines  of  note  in  the  Department 
of  Caldas — that  of  ''El  Sancudo,"  a  rich  gold  mine  owned  and 
operated  by  Medellin  and  Manizales  capital,  and  the  mines  of  the 
Colombian  Mining  &  Exploration  Co.  at  Marmato.  These  latter 
mines,  consisting  of  a  group  of  rich  gold-bearing  veins,  have  been 
exploited  by  this  English  company  for  the  past  100  years.  The 
properties  are  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Cauca  Kiver  in  trie  northern 
part  of  the  Department  near  its  boundary  with  Antioquia  and  west 
of  the  town  of  Salamina  across  the  Cauca  River  at  or  near  the  point 
of  the  junction  of  the  Rio  Pozo. 

This  company  is  purchasing  a  large  amount  of  new  and  modern 
machinery  and  expects  to  extend  operations  in  the  near  future. 
The  Marmato  mines  are  among  the  richest  gold  mines  in  Colombia 
and  are  said  to  be  capable  of  great  production. 

The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Central  Andes  in  Caldas  show  many  old 
placer  workings,  and  there  are  three  or  four  large  properties  owned 
by  foreigners,  principally  Enjglish  people.     However,  at  the  present 


268     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AI^D  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

time  these  properties  are  not  being  worked  to  any  extent,  except 
by  natives  here  and  there  by  hand-washing  methods. 

The  natives  of  Caklas,  hke  those  of  Antioquia,  are  very  good 
surface  miners  and  maybe  supposed  to  have  "surface-prospected" 
their  district  very  thoroughly.  It  can  not  be  said  that  any  new  and 
lar^e  discoveries  will  be  macfe  in  the  near  future  in  this  Department; 
rather,  the  opportunity  in  mining  for  the  foreigner  lies  in  taking 
over  small,  rich  gold  properties  in  which  the  natives  have  exhausted 
their  ingenuity,  upon  reaching  the  water  level,  and  modern  machinery 
and  methods  are  required  to  develop  the  properties  further. 

TRADE  CONDITIONS  AND  DEVELOPMENT  METHODS. 

At  the  present  time  the  Manizales  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  certain 
New  York  export  commission  houses,  principally  of  Colombian 
origin,  such  as  the  Antioquia  Commercial  Corporation,  Alejandro 
Angel  &  Co.,  and  others.  These  houses  have  been  able  to  obtain 
and  hold  this  trade  by  reason  of  their  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
requirements  of  this  market,  of  the  people  with  whom  they  are  doing 
business,  and  of  transportation  and  shipping  conditions.  These 
Colombian  firms  established  in  New  York  are  also  interested  in  the 
local  industrial  development  to  a  very  great  extent  and  cooperate 
with  local  capital  to  this  end,  helping  in  every  way  they -can. 

Resident  agents  for  European  goods  (such  as  English  woolens 
and  other  textiles),  having  headquarters  in  Medellin  and  maintaining 
branch  houses  or  agencies  in  Manizales,  secure  a  large  share  of  the 
trade  in  cotton  goods  and  woolens  and  other  European  specialties 
which  are  in  demand  in  the  country  and  are  ''stock  articles.  One 
agent  from  Medellin  took  £140,000  worth  of  orders  for  English 
textiles  in  Manizales  during  one  week  in  June,  1919. 

The  solution  for  American  trade  would  appear  to  be  the  same  as 
recommended  for  Bogota  and  Medellin,  namely,  resident  agencies 
carrying  new  lines  of  samples  and  becoming  well  acquainted  with 
the  local  people  and  their  trade  requirements.  Such  agencies  could 
be  combined  with  those  for  Bogota,  as  is  being  done  by  several  large 
English  houses  with  headquarters  in  Bogota  and  with  employees, 
both  Colombian  and  English,  in  Mcdellm  and  Manizales.  From 
Manizales  the  trade  work  could  easily  be  developed  to  cover  the 
Cauca  Valley,  Call,  etc.,  and  from  Cali  the  system  could  be  extended 
in  time  to  Popayan  and  Pasto.  The  significant  fact  to  be  recognized 
is  the  success  of  the  European  agents.  These  men  are  making  money 
on  their  commissions  and  are  doing  excellent  work  for  their  manu- 
facturers and  exporters.  The  main  idea  is  to  have  a  man  on  the 
ground  who  knows  conditions  intimately  and  who  has  a  line  of  samples 
ready  with  definite  quotations  at  all  tmies.  These  agents  also  take 
ftare  of  trade  complamts  and  disputes  and  watch  the  business  gener- 
ally. It  may  be  considered  that  this  system  is  the  most  powerful 
factor  in  Colombian  trade. 

CALI  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION  AND  TOPOGRAPHY. 

The  town  of  Cali  is  the  trade  center  for  the  Department  of  El  Valle, 
which  extends  from  the  Central  Cordillera  on  the  east  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean  on  the  west,  and  from  the  Choco  Intendency  and  the  Depart- 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTEBISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     269 


ment  of  Caldas  on  the  north  to  the  Department  of  Cauca  on  the 
south.  Except  for  the  Cauca  River  Valley,  one  of  the  few  accessible 
stretches  of  level  land  in  the  inhabited  portion  of  Colombia,  El 
Valle  is  rough  and  mountainous.  The  Cauca  Valley  extends  from  the 
southern  to  the  northern  border  of  the  department,  and  is  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  lofty  Central  Cordillera  and  on  the  west  by  the 
lower  Western  Cordillera.  It  is  from  3,000  to  3,500  feet  above  sea 
level,  and  averages  from  15  to  25  miles  in  width.  Call  is  located  in 
this  valley  near  the  foothills  of  the  Western  Cordillera  and  is  acces- 


FiG.  IS.— Map  of  Call  region. 


sible  by  rail  from  Buenaventura,  the  ocean  port  of  El  Valle,  through 
a  depression  in  the  Western  Cordillera  known  as  La  Cresta  del  Gallo. 
This  pass  has  an  altitude  of  5,250  feet. 


CUMATE  AND  RAINFALL. 


In  El  Valle,  as  in  all  mountainous  parts  of  Colombia,  climate  de- 
pends primarily  upon  altitude.  The  Cauca  Valley  is  semitropical 
and  not  particularly  healthful,  but  as  the  elevation  increases  to  the 


270     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

east  and  west  the  climate  improves.  The  average  temperature  for 
the  summer  months  at  Cali  is  90°  F.  Cartago,  farther  north  and 
lower  in  the  valley,  is  warmer. 

The  Cauca  Valley  has  four  irregular  seasons.  In  general,  the 
spring  and  fall  months  are  rainy  and  the  summer  and  winter  months 
dry.  The  fall  months  constitute  the  season  of  heavier  rain  and  the 
summer  months  the  hotter  dry  season.  The  annual  rainfall  in  the 
valley  does  not  exceed  60  incnes,  and  in  the  Palmira  district  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  irrigation  for  sugar  cane  and  similar  crops 
to  insure  them  against  protracted  dry  seasons.  At  the  port  of 
Buenaventura  it  rains  almost  every  day,  the  average  annual  rainfall 
reaching  200  inches  or  more. 

AREA.  POPULATION,  AND  SCHOOLS. 

El  Valle  has  a  total  area  of  4,179  square  miles  and  a  total  popula- 
tion of  271,630.  Considering  the  percentage  of  the  total  area  which 
is  tillable  and  the  comparatively  good  transportation  facilities,  the 
population  is  small  as  compared  with  that  of  the  Departments  of 
Caidas  and  Antioquia  to  the  north.  This  is  attributed  partly  to  the 
inefficiency  of  the  available  labor  in  El  Valle  and  partly  to  the  fact 
that  most  of  the  fertile  land  in  the  valley  is' controlled  by  a  few 
wealthy  families;  whereas  in  Antioquia  and  Caidas  the  property 
is  divided  among  many  small  holders.  A  comparison  of  the  1918 
and  1911  census  figures  shows  an  increase  of  25  per  cent  in  the  total 
population  of  El  Valle  during  the  period.  This  increase  is  generally 
attributed  to  immigration  from  Ajitioquia. 

In  1917,  El  Valle  had  more  than  250  primary  schools,  with  about 
23,000  pupils  in  attendance.  Cali  has  four  private  colleges  conducted 
by  various  religious  orders.  The  departmental  budget  for  1919-20 
allots  162,461  Colombian  dollars,  to  schools,  and  the  tobacco  tax  has 
been  increased  to  provide  funds  for  the  erection  of  modern  school 
buildings  and  for  agricultural  courses.     (Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.) 

ECONOMIC  RESOURCES  AND  DEVELOPMENT. 

El  Valle  possesses  land  suitable  for  cattle  raising  and  sugar  grow- 
ing, excellent  woods  for  local  building  and  manufacturing  purposes, 
coal,  and  a  fairly  good  harbor  on  the  racific,  which  affords  an  outlet 
to  the  markets  of  the  United  States  and  Europe,  as  well  as  to  those 
of  the  west  coast  of  South  America.  Moreover,  the  natural  trade 
route  for  imports  to  and  exports  from  the  rich  coffee-growing  regions 
of  Caidas,  Antioquia,  and  the  Quindio  is  through  Cali  and  Buena- 
ventura. In  view  of  these  facts,  it  would  seem  that  the  Cauca  Valley 
should  be  one  of  the  most  prosperous  sections  of  Colombia;  but  its 
development  has  been  retarded  by  the  following  conditions: 

Nearly  tropical  climate,  which  produces,  a  certain    amount  of  physical  inertia. 

The  liinitea  amount  and  inferior  quality  of  labor,  a  condition  which  is  aggravated 
by  the  ignorance  and  lack  of  ambition  of  tne  lower  classes,  who  are  largely  Negro,  and 
by  the  ease  of  life  in  this  region,  m  here  shelter  may  be  obtained  by  a  few  days'  work 
with  a  machete,  and  food  by  planting  a  few  Vjananas  and  stalks  of  cane. 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  land  is  held  by  a  few  large  landowners  whose  activity  is 
limited  to  cattle  raising,  a  profitable  business  which  can  be  carried  on  with  little  su- 
pervision and  few  laborers. 

Control  of  capital  by  these  landowners  whose  interests  keep  them  in  Bogota  most 
of  the  time. 

The  fact  that,  although  polished  and  intellectTial,  the  upper-class  Caucano  lacks 
the  perseverance  and  practicality  poeseesed  by  his  neighbor,  the  Antioquefio,  who 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      271 

is  fast  invading  his  territory  and  successfully  competing  with  him  in  all  lines  of  en- 
deavor. 

The  former  isolation  of  this  rich  region  from  the  outside  world  and  from  the  interior 
of  Colombia,  and  tlie  long  period  of  political  strife  and  civil  wars  in  which  the  Cauca- 
nos  took  a  regional  part. 

DEPARTMENTAL  FINANCES. 

El  Valle  is  in  excellent  financial  condition  as  compared  with  some 
of  the  oth§r  Departments,  and  the  officials  are  bending  every  effort 
toward  its  rapid  development.  The  income  from  the  internal-revenue 
tax  on  liquor  and  tobacco  and  the  slaughter  tax,  the  chief  sources  of 
revenue,  has  increased  during  the  last  few  years,  and  now  provides 
a  surplus  beyond  the  current  expenses. 

The  actual  income  from  these  taxes  during  1918-19  was  over 
$1,046,000,  and  the  income  for  1919-20  is  estimated  at  $1,120,000. 
Revenues  from  other  sources  amounted  to  approximately  $36,000  for 
1918-19,  and  are  estimated  at  $34,000  for  1919-20.  In  addition  to 
these  revenues,  the  1919-20  budget  includes  $3,300  bond  interest  and 
the  $1,000,000  Amsinck  loan,  the  proceeds  of  which  are  being  used 
largely  to  build  the  new  pier  at  Buenaventura.  The  sum  of  $350,000 
is  being  allotted  annually  to  payments  on  the  public  debt,  including 
the  sum  of  $25,000  per  month,  interest  and  principal  paid  on  the 
Amsinck  loan.  An  appropriation  of  $277,000  was  spent  for  public 
works  during  1918,  and  $108,000  during  the  first  half  of  1919. 
These  expenditures  for  public  works  represent  principally  work 
done  on  roads  and  public  buildings. 

The  1919-20  budget  allotted  $1,123,000  to  public  works,  most 
of  this  sum  to  be  spent  for  the  new  pier  at  Buenaventura  and  road 
work.  A  careful  analysis  shows  that  revenues  have  been  steadily 
increasing,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  budget  will  show  a  surplus, 
which  will  be  allotted  to  public  works,  to  extend  the  work  of  road 
and  bridge  building  already  begun,  and  to  begin  the  canalization  of 
the  Cauca. 

El  Valle  desires  a  foreign  loan  of  approximately  $2,000,000,  the 
proceeds  to  be  used  for  public  improvements,  especially  road  build- 
mg  and  river  work.  The  fiscal  condition  would  seem  to  warrant  such 
a  loan,  but  as  yet  no  definite  plan  has  been  worked  out. 

CALI  AND  ITS  COMMERCIAL  RADIUS. 

Call  has  a  population  of  about  26,000.  On  the  whole,  the  town 
presents  a  rather  Spanish-colonial  appearance  in  spite  of  the  fact 
that  many  of  the  old  adobe  buildings  are  being  demolished  in  the 
business  district  and  replaced  by  two  and  three  story  brick  build- 
ings which  are  modern  and  attractive.  The  streets  are  paved  with 
cobble  stones.  The  town  lacks  adequate  drainage  and  water  sup- 
plies, but  pipes  have  already  been  laid  for  the  new  sewerage  and 
water-supply  systems  that  are  being  installed,  and  it  is  planned  to 
improve  the  paving  as  soon  as  this  work  is  completed.  The  present 
accommodations  for  travelers  are  inadequate,  and  the  town  is  badly 
in  need  of  a  new  and  modern  hotel. 

Theoretically,  the  commercial  radius  of  Call  should  extend  north 
into  the  lower  Cauca  Valley  as  far  as  Cartago,  east  as  far  as  the 
town  of  Armenia  in  the  Quindio  coffee  region,  and  south  to  Popayan 
in  the  Department  of  Cauca.  In  reality,  however,  the  Cali  mer- 
chants have  been  content,  until  very  recently,  with  the  limited  field 


272    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

presented  by  the  immediate  Cauca  Valley.  Business  has  been  con- 
ducted on  a  smaller  and  more  restricted  scale  than  in  Manizales  or 
Medellin.     Tlio  Cali  merchants  do  not  carry  large  stocks  of  standard 

foods,  such  as  textiles  for  the  interior  trade,  as  the  Manizales  and 
ledellin  merchants  do,  and  do  not  specialize  in  particular  lines.  In- 
stead, they  carry  small  stocks  of  a  variety  of  merchandise  on  which 
they  can  make  a  quick  turnover,  and  competition  for  the  local  trade 
in  fancy  dry  goods  and  women's  and  men  s  wear  is  keen. 

The  C:ili  merchant  has  habitually  invested  his  profits  in  cattle  in- 
stead of  using  them  to  increase  his  capital  from  year  to  year,  and  his 
connections  with  his  foreign  markets  nave  been  unsj^stomatic  or  hap- 
hazard. Consequently,  it  is  often  better  business  for  him  to  buy 
wholesale  from  the  Manizales  and  Medellin  merchants  who  have 
more  capital  and  good  foreign  trade  connections  than  to  buy  abroad. 
He  may  pay  more  for  these  goods,  but  the  credit  terms  offered  are 
correspondingly  better. 

PACIFIC  RAILWAY. 

The  Pacific  Railway  extends  from  Cali  to  Buenaventura,  a  distance 
of  174  kilometers  (1  ldlometer  =  0.62  mile),  from  Cali  northeast  to 
Palmira,  a  distance  of  25  kilometers,  and  from  Cali  south  to  Gua- 
chinte,  a  distance  of  34  kilometers.  The  line  between  Buenavlentura 
and  Cali  was  begun  in  1878;  but  it  was  not  finished  until  1914,  con- 
struction being  difficult  on  account  of  the  engineering  problems 
involved,  inefficient  labor,  the  incessant  rains,  and  the  unhealthful- 
ness  of  the  tropical  coastal  region.  The  branches  northeast  and  south 
from  Cali  are  still  under  construction.  The  Palmira  branch  is  to 
extend  down  the  Cauca  Valley  to  Cartago,  a  total  distance  of  172 
kilometers  from  Cali,  and  the  southern  branch  to  Popayan,  a  total 
distance  of  IGO  kilometers.  This  southern  branch  is  already  nearly 
completed  for  about  20  kilometers  beyond  Guachinte.  A  branch  from 
Palmira  to  Santander,  a  distance  of  70  kilometers,  is  planned  but  has 
not  been  begun. 

The  present  Colombian  Government  favors  the  so-called  Pacific 
Route  from  Bogota  to  the  ocean,  the  advantages  of  which  have  been 
repeatedly  discussed.  This  plan,  which  involves  the  extension  of  the 
Pacific  Railway  from  Palmira  over  the  Quindio  Pass  of  the  Central 
Cordillera  through  Armenia  to  connect  with  the  Tolima  Railway, 
now  under  construction,  would  give  Cali  direct  connection  with 
Iba^e  and  Girardot,  and  would  greatly  increase  its  commercial 
radius. 

From  Buenaventura  to  the  town  of  Caldas  or  D^ua,  a  distance 
of  82  kilometers,  the  Pacific  Railway  follows  the  Dagua  River,  a 
swift  mountain  stream,  which  it  crosses  many  times.  At  Dagua, 
altitude  2,730  feet,  it  begins  the  ascent  to  La  Cresta  del  Gallo,  alti- 
tude 2,250  feet,  a  distance  of  135  kilometers.  This  portion  of  the 
Pacific  Railway  on  the  western  side  of  the  Western  Cordillera  could 
not  accommodate  heavy  traffic  in  its  present  condition.  For  many 
miles  the  track  is  in  constant  danger  of  being  washed  away  by 
floods  from  the  Dagua,  and  the  reduced  curve  radius  and  the  heavy 
grades  make  it  impossible  for  a  locomotive  to  haul  more  than' 10 
freight  cars.  That  portion  of  the  Buenaventura-Cali  line  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  mountains  is  of  heavier  construction,  with  greater 
curve  radius  and  smaller  grades.     There  are  12  tunnels  between  Call 


ECONOMIC   CHAEACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL.  DISTRICTS.      273 

and  Buenaventura,  with  a  total  length  of  2,116  feet.  Two  of  these 
tunnels  have  been  blasted  out  of  solid  rock,  and  the  others  are  lined 
with  concrete.  All  bridges  are  of  steel,  the  longest  spanning  the 
Cauca  between  Call  and  Palmira.  At  present  the  railway  has  no 
dock  at  Buenaventura,  but  one  is  under  construction. 

The  company's  principal  repair  shops  are  at  Dagua,  while  smaller 
repair  shops  and  the  principal  supply  stores  are  at  Cali.  It  owns 
23  locomotives  ranging  in  weight  from  20  to  55  tons,  40  passenger 
cars,  and  about  200  freight  cars.  The  locomotives  use  bituminous 
coal  from  the  Cali  fields. 

A  contract  made  between  the  National  Government  and  the  Pacific 
Railway  Co.  in  July,  1919,  gave  the  entire  control  of  this  road  to  the 
Government.  Total  receipts  of  the  company  for  1918  were  $424,788, 
and  expenses,  including  work  on  the  Popayan  branch,  amounted  to 
$444,461,  which  left  a  deficit  of  $19,673.  During  the  first  six  months 
of  1919,  the  company  netted  a  gain  of  about  $19,000,  which  it  was 
estimated  would  be  increased  to  $40,000  by  the  end  of  the  year. 
This  is  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  road  that  the  annual 
returns  have  shown  a  profit. 

NAVIGATION  ON  CAUCA  RIVER. 

The  Cauca  River  flows  near  the  western  side  of  the  valley  and  is 
fed  primarily  by  small  streams  from  the  Central  Cordillera.  It  is 
navigable  for  five  or  six  months  of  the  year,  though  it  is  never  a 
very  dependable  means  of  communication  because  it  nas  many  snags, 
sand  bars,  mud  banks,  and  rocks,  and  is  subject  to  floods  and  long 
droughts. 

Two  companies  operate  lines  of  steamers  from  Mallarinto,  7  kilo- 
meters from  Cali,  north  to  the  port  of  La  Virginia,  a  distance  of 
approximately  300  kilometers  by  river.  One  of  these  companies. 
La  Compania  de  Navegacion  del  Rio  Cauca,  has  its  head  office  in  Call 
and  operates  three  steel-hulled  steamers  of  59  tons  capacity.  Wooq 
is  used  for  fuel  on  these  boats,  and  their  stern-wheel  engines  can 
develop  about  100  horsepower  at  180  pounds  of  steam  pressure. 
The  other  company,  La  Compania  Fluvial  de  Transportes  de  Mani- 
zales,  operates  three  steamers,  one  of  50  tons  capacity,  one  of  35  tons, 
and  one  of  20.  This  company  is  particularly  interested  in  business 
with  Antioquia,  Caldas,  and  the  Quindio  region.  Both  these  com- 
panies benefited  from  the  increased  amount  of  coffee  sent  from  the 
Quindio  region  to  Buenaventura  during  1919,  and  both  are  ap- 
parently prosperous. 

Passenger  and  freight  service  reaches  the  towns  of  Yumbo,  Pal- 
mira, and  succeeding  stations  to  Zarzal  (where  the  trail  leaves  for 
the  Armenia  and  Quindio  route  to  Bogota),  and  on  to  Cartago, 
Puerto  Caldas  (the  river  port  for  the  new  Department  of  Caldas 
Railway  now  building  toward  Pereira),  and  La  Virginia,  about  10 
miles  below  Cartago.  As  a  rule,  these  towns  are  built  some  distance 
from  the  river  bank,  and  frdght  must  be  carried  to  and  from  the  land- 
ing places  on  mule  back,  freight  rates  are  quoted  on  each  "tercio" 
(half  mule  cargo  of  300  pounds)  or  on  separate  packages.  Both 
passenger  and  freight  rates  are  higher  for  the  upriver  trip  than  for 
the  downriver  trip. 

37558°— 21 18 


274    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook 

ROAD  AND  TRAILS. 

An  automobile  road  follows  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cauca  River 
north  from  Palmira  to  Buga  la  Grande,  from  which  point  pack  animals 
must  be  used  to  carry  goods  to  such  interior  points  as  Armenia. 
At  the  present  time  there  are  only  two  autotrucks  in  use  on  this 
road,  few  carts,  and  no  large  wagons.  Freight  is  also  sent  north 
from  Palmira  by  pack  train  to  Cartago  and  from  Cartago  north  along 
the  Manizales-Pereira-Cartago  trail,  especially  during  the  dry  season 
when  the  river  is  not  navigable. 

CATTLE  RAISING. 

The  quantity  of  good  pasture  land  available  and  the  ease  with 
which  cattle  raising  can  be  carried  on  with  limited  capital  and  in 
spite  of  the  scarcity  of  efficient  labor  have  inevitably  made  this 
industry  the  most  important  one  in  El  Valle.  The  most  accessible 
and  best  cattle  land  is  in  the  level  valley  and  has  been  purchased  by 
local  people,  who  are  making  large  profits  on  their  investments  and 
do  not  care  to  sell  their  land  except  at  a  very  high  price.  In  the 
vicinity  of  Palmira,  where  the  valley  is  nearly  40  miles  wide  and 
the  soil  very  rich,  the  natural  pasturage  is  used;  but  farther  north 
where  the  timber  is  heavier,  the  land  is  cleared  and  planted  with 
artificial  grass.  The  natural  pasture  land  will  support  about  one 
head  of  cattle  per  hectare  (2.47  acres),  and  well-watered  ground 
along  the  river,  planted  to  artificial  grass,  will  feed  two  head  per 
hectare.  It  costs  about  $20  per  hectare  to  clear,  plant,  and  fence 
new  cattle  land.  In  addition  to  these  more  desirable  pastures  in  the 
valley,  there  are  small  pastures  scattered  along  the  hillsides;  but 
these  are  considered  less  valuable,  because  it  often  becomes  necessary 
to  drive  the  cattle  from  them  down  into  the  valley  during  the 
protracted  droughts  to  which  this  region  is  subject. 

About  700,000  hectares,  approximately  28  per  cent  of  the  total 
area  of  El  Valle,  is  now  being  utilized  for  pasturage,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  Department  contains  some  580,000  hectares  of  unused 
land  suitable  for  pasturage  in  the  hill  districts  and  180,000  hectares 
in  the  valley.  Deducting  from  the  total  amount  of  unused  land  an 
amount  to  be  utilized  for  agricultural  purposes  equal  to  that  now 
under  cultivation,  370,000  hectares,  there  remains  about  390,000 
hectares  of  unused  land  suitable  for  pasturage. 

In  1915,  when  the  last  census  was  taken,  the  Department  contained 
429,000  beef  cattle,  which  number  was  estimated  to  have  increased 
to  524,000  in  1918.  The  Government  estimates  that  this  number 
could  be  increased  to  a  million  if  all  available  pasture  land  were 
utilized. 

It  is  estimated  that  approximately  37,600  beef  cattle  were  con- 
sumed locally  during  1917,  and  that  the  Department's  consumption 
is  increasing  by  10  per  cent  annually.  About  40,000  cattle  are 
marketed  outside  the  Department  each  year,  the  largest  number  in 
Antioquia  and  Caldas,  and  a  small  share  in  the  Choco  Territory. 
During  1919,  fat  beeves,  4  to  5  years  old,  sold  for  $80  per  head  in  the 
local  market  and  two-year  olds  for  $35.  The  west  coast  of  South 
America  and  the  Canal  Zone  constitute  a  large  potential  market  for 
the  beef  products  of  this  district,  and  the  feasibility  of  establishing 
a  packing  house  is  being  discussed. 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.     275 


AGRICULTURE. 


Sugar  is  perhaps  the  most  important  agricultural  product  of  the 
valley.  The  latest  statistics  show  a  total  of  8,000  hectares  planted  to 
sugar  cane  and  a  total  annual  production  of  5,250,000  kilos  (1  kilo  = 
2.2046  pounds)  of  refined  sugar,  10,300,000  kilop  of  panela  (unrefined 
sugar),  and  4,000,000  kilos  of  molasses.  Converting  these  produc- 
tion figures  to  American  standards,  the  average  yearly  yield  is  found 
to  be  about  2,200  pounds  per  acre.  When  considering  this  figure,  it 
must  be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  only  one  large,  scientificaily  cul- 
tivated sugar  estate  in  El  Valle  and  that  the  remainder  of  the  crop 
is  raised  on  small  patches  of  ground  which  receive  little  care.  The 
soil  and  climate  are  exceedingly  favorable  to  this  industry;  and  esti- 
mates agree  that,  if  sufficient  capital  and  labor  could  be  obtained,  the 
amount  of  refined  sugar  available  for  export  each  year  could  be  in- 
creased by  20,000  tons  over  the  present  figure. 

The  Caii  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  long  advocated  the  planting  of 
cotton  in  the  Cauca  Valley.  The  Antioquia  mills  afford  a  ready 
market  for  all  that  could  be  produced,  and  the  soil  and  climate  are 
said  to  be  suitable,  but  all  attempts  to  introduce  the  industry  have 
failed. 

Small  patches  of  com,  yucca,  and  bananas  are  planted  throughout 
the  Department,  and  a  sufficient  quantity  of  these  products  are 
raised  to  supply  the  local  demand.  Their  market  price  is  steadily 
increasing. 

MANUFACTURING. 

There  is  almost  no  manufacturing  in  the  Department  of  El  Valle.  The 
largest  textile  mill,  capitalized  at  12,000  Colombian  dollars  and  employ- 
ing 14  operatives,  makes  a  cheap  cotton  shirting  for  the  trade  of  El 
Valle,  Cauca,  Caldas,  and  Narino.  There  is  one  small  chocolate  factory 
which  supplies  the  local  demand,  one  small  soap  and  candle  factory, 
a  branch  of  a  soda-water  factory,  and  a  cigarette  factory  using  to- 
bacco from  Antioquia  and  Santander  and  selling  its  output  in  El 
Valle  and  the  Choco  Territory.  Popayan  has  a  factory  which  makes 
henequen  fiber  bags  and  mats,  is  capitalized  at  24,000  dollars,  and  has 
14  employees.  Cali  has  a  similar  factory,  but  it  is  too  small  to  supply 
even  local  demand.  There  are  a  few  other  small  factories  in  the  dis- 
trict, including  three  coffee-cleaning  mills. 

The  practicality  of  estabhshing  a  tannery  in  Cali  is  under  con- 
sideration at  the  present  time  by  a  firm  that  is  now  erecting  one  at 
Manizales,  and  the  feasibility  oi  starting  a  cotton  factory  has  been 
discussed.  It  is  urged  that  a  cotton  factory  could  not  fail  to  be  a 
profitable  investment,  but  it  has  been  impossible  to  attract  local  capi- 
tal to  such  an  undertaking.  The  laooring  classes  prefer  light 
factory  work  to  the  heavy  work  of  the  cattle  ranches  and  are  moving 
in  a  constantly  increasing  stream  from  the  country  into  the  towns,  so 
there  would  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  labor  for  a  cotton  factory.  Fuel 
is  plentiful  and  cheap.  Sucn  a  factory  could  market  its  products 
throughout  the  Cali  and  Tumaco  commercial  districts  and  could 
make  at  least  half  the  types  of  cheap  cotton  goods  now  imported  at 
Buenaventura.  These  imports  amoimt  to  approximately  $1,115,000 
a  year. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  industry  of  the  Cauca  Valley  is  the 
manufacture  of  brick  and  tile.     The  plant  belonging  to  Alejandro 


276    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

Vallejo  y  Cla.,  the  most  important  in  the  valley,  has  a  capacity  of 
5,000  to  10,000  bricks  and  tiles  everv  10  hours,  and  makes  42  varieties 
of  hollow  tile  and  building  brick,  ft  is  ecjuipped  with  modern  brick- 
making  machinery  and  eniploys  what  is  known  as  the  stiff-mold 
process.  The  clay  used  comes  from  the  near-by  hills  and  is  so  fine 
m  grade  and  texture  that  bricks  made  from  it  have  almost  the  ap- 
pearance of  Italian  terra  cotta.  It  is  particularly  suited  to  the  tropi- 
cal climate  and  excessive  dampness  of  this  region,  and  is  being  used 
in  the  construction  of  many  of  the  new  buildings  in  Cali. 

COAL  DEPOSITS. 

The  general  dip  of  the  outcroppings  of  coal  found  in  the  foothills 
of  the  Western  Andes  near  Cali,  and  the  shape  and  position  of  the 
valley,  are  generally  conceded  to  indicate  the  presence  of  coal  beds 
under  the  level  floor  of  the  valley.  Thfe  veins  so  far  discovered  ex- 
tend from  Guachinte,  southeast  of  Cali,  to  Punta  Yumbo,  northwest 
of  Cali,  a  distance  of  approximately  83  kilometers.  This  coal  is  bitu- 
minous, somewhat  friable,  steams  easily,  and  will  coke  nicely.  The 
following  analysis  indicates  its  quality:  Volatile  matter,  about  23  per 
cent;  ash,  between  5.38  and  7.66  per  cent;  sulphur,  about  0.77  per 
cent;  and  free  carbon,  between  68.05  and  70.58  per  cent. 

The  importance  of  this  coal  reserve  so  near  the  Panama  Canal  is 
well  understood,  and  it  is  confidently  predicted  that  coal  mining  will 
be  one  of  the  important  industries  of  the  future.  Good  coal  is  badly 
needed  for  both  rail  and  water  transportation  on  the  west  coast  of 
South  America ;  engineers  who  have  examined  the  Cali  deposits  agree 
that  their  exploitation  for  commercial  purposes  is  entirely  practi- 
cable; and  the  Government  officials  are  anxious  to  encourage  the 
development  of  the  Department.  There  is  one  serious  drawback  to 
the  development  of  these  reserves,  namely,  the  limited  carrying 
capacity  of  the  Pacific  Railway  between  Call  and  Buenaventura. 

Five  or  six  mines  are  now  in  operation  near  Cali  with  a  total 
monthly  output  of  approximately  3,000  tons,  but  the  work  is  not 
carried  on  steadily,  and  the  mine  equipment  is  antiquated.  About 
250  to  300  men  are  employed  at  the  mmes,  but  the  tonnage  produc- 
tion per  man  is  low,  ana  the  mining  costs  are  high.  At  present, 
little  coal  is  used  locally  except  by  the  Pacific  Railway,  which  pur- 
chases most  of  the  output  of  the  Cali  mines.  Some  coal  was  shipped 
recently  to  Peru  and  Ecuador,  but  the  high  cost  of  handling  made  it 
an  unprofitable  business.  The  cost  of  coal  at  Cali,  delivered  at 
railway  freight  sheds,  is  S7  per  ton. 

No  real  development  work  has  been  undertaken  by  foreign  inter- 
ests. Some  prospecting  was  recently  started  by  two  Americans ;  and 
the  Canal  Commission  at  one  time  offered  to  take  steps  toward  the 
exploitation  of  the  Cali  coal  beds,  but  abandoned  the  idea  because  of 
the  excessive  prices  denlanded  by  the  owners  of  local  lands  for  the 
purchase  of  their  property.  Coal  lands  do  not  come  under  the  exist- 
mg  mining  laws,  and  are,  therefore,  not  open  for  location  of  claims. 
Coal  reserves  are  generally  held  to  be  the  property  of  the  Govern- 
ment unless  the  title  of  the  owner  of  the  land  antedates  the  land  laws 
of  1876.  Most  titles  in  the  Cali  district  do  antedate  1876  and  there- 
fore giv^e  the  owners  free  right  to  sell  or  work  their  coal  fields,  but 
any  foreign  company  entering  the  field  in  the  future  should  have 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTEEISTIGS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     277 

some  arrangement  with  the  Government  before  making  any  pm*- 

ppQGpa 

PORT  OF  BUENAVENTURA. 

Buenaventura  is  only  360  miles  from  Panama  and  is  the  first  port 
of  call  to  the  south  of  the  Canal.  The  Colombian  Navigation  Co. 
and  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co.  maintain  regular,  monthly, 
round-trip  services  to  Colon;  and  a  boat  belonging  to  the  Rolph 
Navigation  &  Coal  Co.  makes  monthly  calls.  The  Bay  of  Buena- 
ventura is  about  8  miles  long  and  the  navigable  channel  is  verv  nar- 
row. There  are  no  aids  to  navigation.  The  mouth  of  the  bay  is 
wide,  but  the  water  on  both  sides  of  the  channel  is  very  shallow;  and 
the  harbor,  which  is  more  or  less  filled  with  silt,  would  require  dredg- 
ing for  vessels  of  over  3,000  tons  burden. 

The  town  of  Buenaventura  is  situated  on  a  small,  low  island,  origi- 
nally a  swamp,  and  is  separated  from  the  solid  mainland  by  great 
mangle  swamps  through  which  the  Dagua  River  flows  into  the  bay. 
Because  of  the  danger  from  river  floods  and  from  the  tides,  which 
have  an  average  rise  and  fall  of  about  15  feet,  the  town  has  been 
practically  built  on  piles.  The  present  population  is  approximately 
4,000,  of  whom  90  per  cent  are  Negroes. 

The  town  has  no  water  supply  other  than  the  rain  water  caught  in 
barrels  on  the  roofs  of  the  wooden  houses,  and  there  is  constant 
danger  of  disease.  Because  of  unhealthful  conditions  a  strict  quar- 
antine is  maintained  against  Buenaventura  by  canal  authorities, 
although  there  has  been  no  epidemic  of  yellow  fever  since  1916.  To 
improve  these  conditions  it  would  be  necessary  to  fill  in  the  town 
with  dredgings  from  the  river  and  completely  rebuild  it  with  a  proper 
sewerage  system  and  an  adequate  water  supply. 

Ships  anchor  about  one-half  mile  from  shore,  and  cargo  is  trans- 
ferred by  means  of  large  covered  steel  lighters.  Eight  of  these 
lighters  are  available,  and  they  are  drifted  to  and  from  shore  on 
the  tidal  current,  which  at  times  runs  4^  miles  an  hour  and  is  suffi- 
cient to  drift  loaded  lighters  of  500  tons  capacity.  Tugs  are  never 
used.  The  lighters  are  landed  at  the  railway  freight  sheds  and  the 
cargo  unloaded  by  hand.  The  cost  of  handling  freight  varies  greatly 
because  of  the  heavy  rains  which  interfere  with  loading  and  unload- 
ing throughout  the  year,  but  labor,  lighter  hire,  and  miscellaneous 
charges  may  be  estimated  to  average  about  S2.10  per  ton  for  export 
cargo  and  $2.70  for  import  cargo.  As  many  as  500  men  can  be 
recruited  at  short  notice  for  steamer  work.  This  labor  is  performed 
bv  native,  unskilled  negroes,  who  receive  an  average  daily  wage  of 
about  $1.20. 

A  new  pier  is  being  built  at  Buenaventura  393  feet  from  shore, 
where  the  water  is  18  to  20  feet  deep  at  lowest  tide.  It  will  have 
two  railway  approaches  and  one  wagon  road,  and  will  accommodate 
two  steamers  alongside.  June,  1920,  has  been  set  as  the  date  for  the 
completion  of  the  construction  work,  which  is  being  performed  by 
Jamaican  laborers,  and  is  in  charge  of  American  experts  from  Panama. 

Freight  will  be  loaded  directly  into  railway  cars,  and  it  is  esti- 
mated that  the  freight-handling  costs  on  export  cargo  will  be  low- 
ered by  approximately  $1.70  per  ton,  and  on  import  freight  by  about 
$2.20  per  ton.  The  Department  of  El  Valle  is  to  be  permitted  to 
charge  $1.50  per  ton  for  handling  import  cargo  and  $1  for  export 


278    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

cargo,  50  centavos  per  head  for  live  stock  exported  and  $1  per  head 
for  live  stock  imported.  The  Department  plans  to  administer  the 
pier  until  its  cost  has  been  repaia,  plus  interest  on  the  investment 
at  6  per  cent. 

BUENAVENTURA  AS  DISTRIBUTING  CENTER  FOR  NORTHERN  MINING  REGIONS. 

With  the  exception  of  the  coal  mines  near  Cali,  there  are  no  pro- 
ducing mines  in  the  Department  of  El  Valle;  but  its  port,  Buena- 
ventura, is  the  principal  shipping  port  for  the  rich  platinum  and 
gold  mining  district  of  the  San  Juan,  Condoto,  and  Opondo  Rivers 
m  the  Choco  Territory.  This  trade  does  not  move  through  Cali,  but 
directly  to  Buenaventura  from  the  Choco  Territory  via  the  San  Juan 
River. 

All  freight  for  this  district  is  handled  by  the  Linea  Costafiera 
Fluvial  de  Vapores,  which  operates  two  small,  steel-hulled  steamers 
between  Buenaventura  and  Negria.  This  journey  takes  from  four 
days  to  two  weeks  and  the  trip  to  Istmina  two  days  more.  The 
whole  trip  is  not  an  easy  one  and  should  not  be  undertaken  without 
ample  provision  for  camping  in  the  tropical  jungle  and  special 
arrangement  for  the  river  passage.  There  are  no  fixed  passenger 
or  freight  rates.  Freight  charges  are  levied  per  package  and  are 
almost  prohibitively  mgh.  All  merchandise  must  be  packed  for 
canoe  and  mule  shipment  and  waterproofed,  and  all  machinery  has 
to  be  shipped  in  knocked-down  condition.  Special  arrangements 
should  be  made  for  the  shipment  of  heavy  machinery  such  as  large 
dredgers. 

In  addition  to  the  boats  operating  on  the  San  Juan  River,  several 
small  sloops  trade  along  the  Pacific  coast  near  Buenaventura  buy- 
ing balata,  chicle,  rubber,  hides,  cedar,  gold,  and  platinum  from 
the  natives  and  selling  them  small  lots  of  merchandise,  principally 
cheap  cotton  goods,  purchased  from  wholesalers  at  Buenaventura. 

GOLD  AND  PLATINUM  PRODUCED  IN  SOUTHERN  CHOCO  TERRITORY. 

The  most  important  placer  grounds  of  this  district  are  located 
along  the  Condoto  River.  One  large  mining  camp  is  located  6 
miles  below  Istmina  at  the  junction  of  the  Condoto  and  San  Juan 
Rivers,  another  some  distance  up  the  Condoto.  The  district  contains 
numerous  small  streams,  all  of  which  are  worked  in  a  more  or  less 
desultory  and  very  primitive  manner  by  the  native  Negroes,  who 
roam  from  place  to  place,  living  on  dried  fish  and  plantains.  The 
country  is  very  tropical  and  subject  to  heavy  rains  throughout  the 
year. 

The  exports  of  gold  dust  and  platinum  from  Buenaventura  indicate 
the  amount  produced  in  this  district,  though  they  do  not  include  the 
considerable  quantities  shipped  out  of  the  country  privately  each 
year,  and  therefore  do  not  represent  the  total  production.  During 
1917,  247  kilos  of  platinum  were  declared  for  export  at  the  Buena- 
ventura customhouse  and  396  kilos  of  gold  dust.  During  1918,  352 
kHos  of  platinum  and  326  kilos  of  gold  dust  were  declared. 

Foreign  mining  companies  owning  rich  dredging  ground  in  this 
territory  have  been  senously  affected  by  income-tax  legislation  both 
in  the  United  States  and  in  England,  and  have  allowed  some  of  their 
richest  claims  to  lie  idle  until  the  repeal  of  the  tax  laws.  This  policy 
has  greatly  decreased  the  production  of  both  gold  and  platinum. 


ECONOMIC   CHA&ACTERISTiCS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     279 
VOLUME  OF  BUSINESS  AT  BUENAVENTURA. 

During  the  first  half  of  1919  imports  at  Buenaventura  amounted 
to  1,092,335  Colombian  dollars,  of  which  total  the  United  States  fur- 
nished merchandise  valued  at  777,117  dollars,  or  about  71  per  cent, 
and  Panama  110,790  dollars'  worth,  largely  merchandise  of  American 
manufacture.  Returns  for  the  entire  year  of  1919  are  not  yet  avail- 
able, but  they  were  probably  much  in  excess  of  the  total  indicated  by 
the  returns  for  the  nrst  six  months. 

Exports  valued  at  $9,164,577  (U.  S.  currency)  were  sent  to  the 
United  States  during  the  whole  calendar  year  1919,  representing  about 
98  per  cent  of  the  total  exports.    In  1920  the  value  was  $13,784,522. 

Buenaventura  had  an  excess  of  exports  over  imports  amounting  to 
2,567,049  Colombian  dollars  at  the  end  of  1918.  Total  imports  for 
1918  at  Buenaventura  amounted  to  2,211,612  dollars;  imports  from 
the  United  States  to  1,438,711  doUars,  or  65  per  cent  of  the  total ;  and 
from  Panama  to  104,545  dollars.  Total  exports  from  Buenaventura 
for  the  same  year  amounted  to  4,778,578  dollars,  and  exports  to  the 
United  States  to  4,370,112  dollars,  or  91  per  cent  of  the  total.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  and  their  values  were  (Colombian  dollar  = 
$0.9733): 

Colombian  dollars.  Colombian  dollars. 


Coffee 2,  378,  783 

Platinum 1,299,255 

Gold  dust 218.393 


Cattle  hides 481,236 

Sugar 133,674 

Balata 168,  842 


The  fact  that  the  actual  volume  of  imports  decreased  more  than 
100  per  cent  during  the  period  1914-1918,  while  the  value  remained 
practically  stationary,  snows  the  increased  prices  paid  for  foreign 
goods.  The  exports  for  the  period  do  not  show  the  same  percentage 
of  price  increase,  both  the  actual  volume  and  the  value  for  1918  being 
more  than  twice  what  they  had  been  in  1914. 

The  following  table  gives  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  imports 
and  exports  by  years  for  the  period  1914-1918: 

[Metric  ton=2,205  pounds.] 


Imports. 

Exports. 

Years. 

Metric 
tons. 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Metric 
tons. 

Colombian 
doUars. 

1914 

16,676 
14,161 
12,932 
11,806 
7,545 

2,824,953 
2,847,214 
2,932,393 
2,636,755 
2,211,529 

6,845 
6,815 
9,749 
U,446 
13,128 

2,220,177 
2,375,612 
3,370,013 

1915 

1916 

1917 

4, 741, 794 

1918 

4,778,679 

CUSTOMS  REVENUE. 


The  total  revenue  collected  by  the  customs  officials  at  Buenaven- 
tura during  the  year  1917-18  was  1,470,798  Colombian  dollars,  and 
the  total  expenses  amounted  to  only  89,098  dollars,  or  about  7  per 
cent  of  the  amount  collected. 


280     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  revenue  received  from  imports  and  exports  for  the  period 
1914-1918  is  illustrated  by  the  following  figures,  given  in  Colombian 
gold  dollars : 


Import 
duties. 

Export 
duties. 

Import 
duties. 

Export 
duties. 

1914 

1,323,730 

875,622 

1, 188, 797 

43 

62 

369 

1917 

970,296 
510,494 

12,620 

1915.                           

1918 

17,139 

1916 

The  Government  collects  as  customs  duties  a  high  percentage  of 
the  total  value  of  imports.  An  analysis  of  the  1914  statistics  shows 
that  more  than  45  per  cent  of  the  total  .value  of  imports  was  received 
by  the  Government  in  duties  during  that  year. 

PARCEL-POST  IMPORTS. 

Competition  for  the  local  trade  in  fancy  dry  goods  and  articles  of 
ready-made  clothing  is  keen  in  Cali.  The  merchants  carry  only  small 
stocks,  but  make  quick  turnovers,  and  are  constantly  ordering  small 
quantities  of  a  variety  of  goods.  The  parcel-post  service  affords  the 
most  convenient  shipping  medium  for  tnese  small  orders,  and  parcel- 

Eost  imports  have  increased  notably  during  1919.  This  increase  has 
een  attributed  to  the  insistent  demand  for  goods  for  immediate 
delivery  during  the  coffee-harvest  season,  and  to  the  deltty  in  the  de- 
livery of  large  orders  occasioned  by  the  congestion  of  traffic  caused  in 
part  by  the  movement  of  the  coffee  crop.  The  increase  in  the  maxi- 
mum weight  limit  for  parcel-post  packages  has  undoubtedly  benefited 
this  trade  also. 

Customhouse  returns  have  never  shown  the  value  of  parcel-post 
imports  separately  prior  to  1919,  but  will  do  so  for  that  year.  Duty 
on  parcel-post  shipments  is  assessed  on  the  value  per  kilo  of  the 
highest-priced  article  contained,  multiplied  by  the  gross  weight. 

BANKING  FACIUTIES  IN  CAU— CHAMBER  OF  COMMERCE. 

Cali  has  one  local  bank  and  branches  of  two  American  banks.  The 
local  institution  is  very  old  and  has  many  of  the  wealthy  families  of 
the  valley  among  its  shareholders.  It  buys  local  products  for  export 
and  acts  as  commission  agents  for  clients,  and  it  has  several  cor- 
respondents in  the  United  States.  Local  merchants  are  retained  as 
its  agents  in  interior  towns,  but  little  interest  is  shown  in  local  in- 
dustrial development  and  no  loans  are  made  to  the  departmental 
government  for  public  works.  Its  business  is  imderstood  to  have 
mcreased  greatly  during  1919  and  its  earnings  to  have  been  three 
times  those  of  any  previous  normal  year. 

A  straight  foreign  banking  and  exchange  business,  the  negotiation 
of  commercial  loans,  etc.,  is  carried  on  by  one  of  the  American  banks 
at  Cali.  The  second  bank  is  affiliated  with  an  exporting  and  import- 
ing corporation.  It  has  a  branch  in  the  Quindio  coffee  district  and  is 
said  to  be  partly  responsible  for  the  diversion  of  much  of  the  coffee 
traffic  from  the  Magaalena  River  route  to  the  west  coast.  The  recent 
establishment  of  these  foreign  banks  in  Cali  has  lowered  local  in- 
terest rates  from  24  per  cent  to  15  and  even  11  per  cent  already,  and 


i 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      281 

further  reductions  are  contemplated.  This  reduction  of  interest 
rates  and  the  better  credit  faciHties  afforded  will  undoubtedly  do 
much  to  aid  the  merchant  in  his  efforts  to  establish  direct  connec- 
tions with  foreign  exporting  houses. 

The  Cali  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  been  very  active  during  the 
past  few  years  and  is  one  of  the  best  in  Colombia.  It  publishes  a 
monthly  bulletin,  which  disciisses  recent  national  and  departmental 
legislation,  freight  rates,  possible  means  of  improving  general  com- 
mercial conditions,  development  of  agriculture  and  cattle  raising, 
and  also  contains  valuable  statistical  data. 

ADVERTISING  MEDIUMS  AND  METHODS. 

The  Cali  merchant  desires  a  personal  acquaintance  with  the  people 
from  whom  he  buys;  therefore,  the  impersonal  circular  letter  is  of 
little  value  in  this  district.  If  catalogues  are  sent,  they  should  be  in 
Spanish,  with  weights  and  measures  quoted  in  both  the  metric  and 
American  systems  so  that  duties  can  be  estimated  and  market  com- 
parisons made.  List  prices  should  not  be  changed  unless  market 
conditions  make  it  absolutely  necessary. 

Advertising  master  containing  a  quantity  of  small-type  reading 
matter  without  much  display  attracts  little  attention;  but  pictures, 
especially  if  they  show  tne  article  used  in  surroundings  similar  to 
those  of  the  locality,  are  a  good  advertising  medium,  and  attractive 
containers  which  enable  the  merchant  to  enhance  the  display  of  a 
new  article  are  a  distinct  asset.  Local  dealers  announce  the  arrival 
of  novelties  and  fancy  articles  with  handbills  and  placards — a  most 
successful  system  of  advertising,  since  novelty  and  style  count  for 
even  more  in  Cali  than  in  the  United  States.  Another  means  of  ad- 
vertising highly  esteemed  by  the  local  merchant  is  the  American 
show  window,  which  is  being  rapidly  introduced  into  the  district. 
Newspapers  are  a  good  advertising  medium.  Rates  for  space  are 
not  high,  the  papers  are  read  and  reread,  and,  in  the  country  dis- 
tricts, are  passed  about  from  hand  to  hand. 

Cali  has  six  papers.  The  two  leading  ones  circulate  throughout 
the  entire  valley,  print  telegrams  and  foreign  cable  news  as  well  as 
local  news,  and  carry  considerable  local  and  foreign  advertising. 
A  general  trade  directory  was  published  in  Cali  in  1916,  but  was 
incomplete  because  it  was  not  generally  supported  by  the  business 
men  of  the  district,  who  did  not  appreciate  its  advertising  value.  A 
new  publication,  the  Anuario  Comercial,  is  now  being  published 
and  has  gained  much  better  support;  10,000  copies  of  the  present 
edition  are  to  be  printed  and  distributed  throughout  the  district, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  issue  a  new  edition  each  year. 

FUTURE  OF  AMERICAN  TRADE  WITH  CALI  DISTRICT. 

The  building  of  more  roads  and  of  the  new  pier  at  Buenaventura, 
the  increase  in  the  amount  of  coffee  sent  from  the  interior  to  Buena- 
ventura for  export,  and  the  renewal  of  the  steamship  service  inter- 
rupted by  the  war  have  all  stimulated  commercial  activity  in  Cali. 
The  merchants  are  moving  into  new  and  larger  quarters.  They  are 
planning  to  extend  their  business  by  the  establishment  of  agencies 
and  small  branches  in  Armenia,  ropayan,  and  other  important 
interior  towns. 


282    COLOMBIA:  a  (commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

Before  the  war  few  American  traveling  men  visited  Cali,  only  two 
American  firms  were  represented  in  the  district,  and  resident  agents 
in  Colombia  usually  handled  European  goods.  During  the  war  and 
the  early  part  of  1919,  however,  these  agents  were  forced  to  substitute 
American  goods  for  the  European  merchandise  which  they  could 
not  obtain,  and  the  Cali  merchant  liked  the  novelty  and  variety  of 
the  American  goods  with  which  he  became  familiar.  He  is  intelli- 
gent, knows  how  to  figure  costs,  and  is  well  versed  in  the  art  of 
market  comparison;  and  he  is  quick  to  realize  the  advantage  of  the 
earlier  deliveries  which  the  shorter  distance  to  New  York  makes  pos- 
sible. The  establishment  of  the  two  American  banks  in  Cali  oners 
him  better  credit  facilities  than  were  previously  obtainable,  and  he 
is  coining  to  the  United  States  desirous  of  establishing  new  and 
permanent  trade  connections. 

Under  these  conditions  the  American  exporter  has  a  good  chance 
to  obtain  a  permanent  place  in  the  increasingly  important  trade  of 
the  Cali  district;  but  if  he  wants  this  place  he  must  work  for  it. 
Lack  of  sufficient  shipping  space  from  Colon  to  Buenaventura  and 
the  absence  of  personal  representation  in  Cali  are  at  present  handi- 
caps to  this  trade.  English  and  French  firms  reentered  the  market 
in  the  latter  part  of  1919,  and  the  volume  of  trade  that  they  have 
already  regained  is  conclusive  proof  of  the  strength  of  their  former 

Eosition.  If  the  American  exporter  wishes  to  succeed  in  this  field 
e  must  familiarize  himself  with  the  conditions  peculiar  to  this 
market;  he  must  pay  more  attention  to  the  details  of  exporting  to 
Colombia,  especially  to  the  care  and  dispatch  with  which  merchandise 
is  transshipped  at  Colon;  and  last,  but  not  least,  he  must  lose  no 
opportunity  to  form  a  personal  acquaintance  with  his  customers. 

COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT  OF  TUMACO. 

LOCATION — STEAMSHIP  SERVICE — ^HARBOR. 

Ttmiaco,  Colombia,  some  200  miles  south  of  Buenaventura,  is  the 

Eort  of  entry  for  the  trade  of  the  district  south  of  Popayan  in  the 
department  of  Cauca  and  for  the  Department  of  Narino,  except  for 
a  negligible  amount  of  commerce  carried  on  through  Ipiales  on  the 
Ecuadorian  border.  It  is  the  only  Pacific  port  of  call  in  Colombia 
besides  Buenaventura,  and  it  is  served  by  two  steamers,  one  be- 
longing to  the  Pacific  Steam  Navigation  Co.  (Ltd.)  and  the  other 
to  the  Colombian  Navigation  Co.  (Ltd.),  which  maintain  monthly 
round-trip  services  between  Buenaventura  and  Colon. 

The  Tmnaco  harbor  is  semicircular  in  shape,  about  1^  miles  in 
width  at  the  town  and  about  4  miles  in  length.  The  tidal  currents 
are  not  so  strong  as  at  Buenaventura,  but  the  harbor  is  not  so  good. 
It  has  dangerous  shoals  and  sand  bars,  and  it  would  have  to  be 
thoroughly  dredged  before  it  could  be  made  a  port  of  call  for  steamers 
of  more  than  3,000  tons.  The  land  around  the  harbor  is  not  suffi- 
cient to  break  high  winds  or  storms,  and  though  steamers  enter  and 
leave  without  pilot  service,  they  do  not  attempt  the  entrance  at 
night. 

The  town  is  situated  on  a  small,  low,  sandy  island  which  has  been 
encroached  upon  by  the  sea  to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  in  danger 
of  being  submerged  unless  the  proposed  harbor  defense  measures 
are  carried  out  soon.     It  is  south  of  the  heavy-rain  belt  and  is  a 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.     283 

more  pleasant  and  healthful  place  than  Buenaventura.  Its  present 
population  is  about  6,000.  Stimulated  by  the  building  of  the  new- 
pier  at  Buenaventura,  the  Department  of  Narino  has  had  plans 
drawn  for  harbor  improvements  and  a  new  pier  at  Tumaco,  and 
is  now  having  estimates  of  the  cost  prepared.  At  present,  how- 
ever, Tumaco  has  only  one  small  wharf,  the  property  of  a  steam- 
ship company  which  operates  a  line  of  boats  up  the  near-by  coast 
and  up  the  Patia  River.  Steamers  of  only  a  few  hundred  tons  bur- 
den and  not  over  8  feet  draft,  such  as  are  employed  in  the  local 
trade,  land  directly  at  this  wharf,  but  larger  steamers  must  anchor 
in  the  bay  about  three-quarters  of  a  mile  from  the  town  and  be 
unloaded  by  means  of  lighters.  Steel-hull  lighters  of  300  to  500  tons 
capacity  are  used.  • 

COMMERCIAL   TERRITORY   SERVED   BY   TUMACO. 

Pasto,  situated  on  the  high  table-land  southeast  of  Tumaco,  Bar- 
bacoas  on  a  tributary  of  the  Patia  River,  and  Tumaco  are  the  chief 
commercial  centers  of  this  district.  Pasto  serves  the  largest  part  of 
the  territory,  but  Barbacoas  and  Tumaco  are  equally  important  be- 
cause of  their  proximitv  to  the  Patia  Valley. 

Considerable  parts  oi  the  district  served  by  Tumaco  are  entirely 
undeveloped,  and  the  population  is  made  up  largely  of  Indians  and 
Ne^oes  with  very  limited  purchasing  power.  The  lower  valley  of  the 
Patia  River,  north  of  Tumaco,  is  a  good  cattle-raising  section,  but 
farther  inland,  in  spite  of  its  fertility,  it  is  still  undeveloped,  and, 
like  other  tropical  sections  of  Colombia,  has  the  reputation  of  being 
unhealthful.  The  coast  south  of  Tumaco  is  sparsely  populated  and 
is  very  tropical  and  inaccessible. 

Rubber,  chicle,  and  other  forest  products  are  found  both  in  the 
Patia  River  region  and  in  the  section  south  and  east  of  Tumaco,  but 
lack  of  transportation  and  scarcity  of  labor  make  their  exploitation 
difficult.  Fish  abound  at  the  mouth  of  the  Patia  River  and  the  Bay 
of  Tumaco,  and  black  whales  are  found  in  the  vicinity,  but  so  far 
no  extensive  fishing  industry  has  been  developed.  Pearl  fishing  is 
carried  on  by  the  Negro  boatmen,  and  a  small  quantity  of  sheS  is 
exported  annually.  Some  quartz  gold  mines  are  oeing  worked  near 
Pasto  by  foreigners,  and  the  product  is  exported  through  Ecuador. 
Placer  mining  is  carried  on  by  the  natives  around  Barbacoas  and 
farther  south  toward  the  Ecuadorian  border.  Some  prospecting  has 
been  done  also  by  foreigners,  but  the  region  is  very  broken,  the  cli- 
mate hot,  transportation  difficult,  and  labor  scarce  and  inefficient. 
No  large  mining  companies  are  interested  in  the  region  at  present,  and 
no  modern  machinery  is  used. 

TRANSPORTATION   FACILITIES. 

Rivers  and  trails  are  the  only  means  of  communication  between 
Tumaco  and  the  interior.  Three  new,  steel-hull  steamers  with  pro- 
peller drive  are  operated  from  Tumaco  up  the  coast  to  the  Patia  and 
up  this  river  and  its  tributary,  the  Telembi,  to  Barbacoas.  These 
boats  can  carry  about  120  tons  of  freight  and  are  amply  able  to  accom- 
modate the  trade  between  the  two  towns.  The  river  presents  some 
difficulty  to  navigation,  however,  during  the  dry  season  from  July  to 
October.     The  traveler  bound  for  Pasto  must  make  a  two  days'  jour- 


284    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

nej  inland  from  Barbacoas  over  a  mule  trail  to  the  wagon  road  now 
bemg  built  out  of  Pasto  toward  Barbacoas.  Here  an  automobile  can 
be  secured  for  the  rest  of  the  journey,  a  distance  of  58  miles.  Freight 
destined  for  Pasto  follows  the  same  route,  and  must  be  packed  and 
waterproofed  for  mule  shipment. 
•  The  Department  of  Narino  is  making  every  effort  to  complete  this 
road,  which  is  to  extend  through  Barbacoas  to  Tumaco,  and  has 
planned  to  build  a  second  road  from  Pasto  to  Tumaco  through  the 
potentially  rich  district  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  port.  The  com- 
pletion of  these  roads  will  greatly  facilitate  the  distnbution  of  goods 
through  Tumaco,  thus  increasing  the  conmiercial  importance  of  the 
district. 

TRADE    STATISTICS. 

Exports  from  Tumaco  for  the  year  1918  amounted  to  1,236,902 
Colombian  gold  dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  currency), 
of  which  amount  about  94  per  cent  was  sent  to  the  United  States. 
Exports  for  the  first  half  of  1919  totaled  575,364  Colombian  dollars, 
an  amount  slightly  larger  than  that  of  the  corresponding  period  of 
1918,  and  the  United  States  took  about  82  per  cent  of  this  total. 
Tagua  nuts,  Panama  hats,  rubber,  and  gold  dust  are  the  most  im- 
portant articles  of  export.  During  1918  tagua  nuts  valued  at 
245,869  dollars,  Panama  hats  at  244,194  dollars,  rubber  at  225,953 
dollars,  and  gold  dust  valued  at  160,240  dollars  were  exported  to  the 
United  States.  The  exportation  of  hides  to  the  United  States  is 
handicapped  by  the  lack  of  a  consular  agent  at  Tumaco,  and  hides 
must  be  sent  to- Buenaventura  to  receive  certificates  of  disinfection. 

The  high  prices  obtained  for  exports  and  the  improved  economic 
conditions  prevailing  in  the  interior  will  undoubtedly  be  reflected 
in  the  imports  for  the  last  half  of  1919,  but  formerly  imports  varied 
little  from  year  to  year.  In  1911,  a  normal  pre-war  year,  imports 
were  valued  at  1,052,494  Colombian  dollars.     Imports  at  Tumaco 

Eay  only  50  per  cent  of  the  basic  tariff  charged  at  Colombia's  Carib- 
ean  ports. 

BUSINESS  METHODS. 

Merchants  in  the  Tumaco  district  carry  general  stocks,  and  a  large 
part  of  their  buying  and  selling  is  done  through  New  York  com- 
mission houses.  The  more  important  lines  handled  are  the  cheaper 
grades  of  cotton  goods,  drills,  denims,  light-weight  dress  goods,  and 
men's  clothing  suitable  for  the  Tropics.  The  principal  buying  season 
extends  from  March  to  the  end  of  May. 

Business  is  hampered  by  the  fact  that  there  is  no  bank  at  Tumaco. 
Pasto  has  a  native  bank,  but  the  length  of  time  required  for  com- 
munication between  these  towns  renders  it  almost  valueless  to  Tumaco 
merchants,  who  do  most  of  their  banking  through  Call.  There  is  no 
American  resident  sales  agency  in  Tumaco  or  in  either  of  the  interior 
towns  of  the  district.  If  such  an  agency  were  established,  it  should 
represent  some  large,  general  export  house,  and  be  prepared  to  find 
a  market  in  the  United  States  for  the  products  of  the  district  as  well 
as  to  sell  American  merchandise. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.     285 
BUCARAMANGA  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION,  TOPOGRAPHY,  AND  CLIMATE. 

Bucaramanga  is  the  trade  center  of  the  Department  of  Santander. 
Santander  belongs  to  the  group  of  Departments  comprising  the  East- 
em  Cordillera  region  of  Colombia  and  is  mountainous  throughout  its 
entire  area  except  for  the  stretches  of  low,  level  land  along  the 


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REPROOU— . 

R.MAYER'S  COLOMBIA 


Fig.  19.— Map  of  Bucaramanga  region. 

Magdalena  River,  which  forms  its  western  boundary  for  about  190 
miles.  It  is  west  of  the  main  range  of  the  Eastern  Cordillera  and  con- 
tains no  very  high  mountain  peaks,  but  is  crossed  bv  several  of  the  les- 
ser ridges,  which  extend  through  it  in  a  long  curve  from  the  southwest 
to  the  northeast. 

The  valleys  of  the  Magdalena  and  the  small  rivers  near  it  are 
tropical  and  unhealthful,  but  the  climate  improves  with  increase  in 


286    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

altitude  in  the  interior.  At  5,000  feet  the  climate  is  good,  and  at 
7,000  feet  it  is  never  extremely  hot  or  cold.  Bucaramanga,  at  an 
altitude  of  2,850  feet,  has  an  average  mean  temperature  of  about 
89°  F.,  and  a  maximum  of  over  100  F.  The  annual  rainfall  aver- 
ages about  63  inches  throughout  the  Department.  The  dry  seasons 
prevail  from  November  to  April  and  June  to  September,  and  the 
season  of  heaviest  rain  is  from  September  to  November.  The  dense 
jungles  in  the  south  are  subject  to  sudden  windstorms  which  cut 
great  paths  of  destruction  through  the  forest,  making  travel  very 

AREA.  POPULATION,  AND  SCHOOLS. 

The  Department  of  Santander  has  an  area  of  19,161  square  miles 
and  an  estimated  population  of  about  425,000.  Bucaramanga  has  a 
population  of  approximately  26,000.  Most  of  the  people  live  in  the 
small,  alluvial  valleys  of  the  interior.  The  northern  part  of  the 
Magdalena  Valley  has  a  few  small  towns,  but  the  southern  part  is 
uninhabited  except  hj  primitive  peoples,  and  much  of  it  is  prac- 
tically unexplorea.  The  highest  section  of  the  Department  toward 
the  northern  boundary  is  very  sparsely  populated. 

Except  alon^  the  Magdalena,  where  the  original  Spanish  settlers 
were  comparatively  few  and  where  there  has  been  a  heavy  infusion 
of  negro  blood,  the  people  of  Santander,  like  those  of  Antioquia  and 
Caldas,  prefer  to  own  the  land  which  they  cultivate.  Their  holdings 
are  usually  tiny  patches  in  the  river  valleys  or  small  coffee  or  cacao 
plantations  on  the  hillsides  above  the  villages.  They  have  always 
Deen  handicapped  by  their  isolation,  however,  and  are  less  progres- 
sive and  active  than  the  Antioquians. 

The  Department  has  about  380  public  schools,  with  approximately 
14,600  pupils.  Bucaramanga  has  one  national  normal  school  and 
two  high  schools,  one  of  which  is  parochial. 

VOLUME  OF  TRADE. 

...  ' 

The  volume  of  the  Bucaramanga  trade  is  indicated  bv  the  follow- 
ing statistics  obtained  from  the  reports  of  the  river  freight  movement 
at  the  river  ports  of  Puerto  Santos,  Santa  Maria,  and  Puerto  Wilches. 
The  exports  consist  chiefly  of  coffee  and  cacao,  and  there  are  small 
shipments  of  hides.  Amounts  of  exports  and  imports  are  given 
below  in  packages  or  bales,  of  approximately  65  kuos  (1  kilo  =  2.2 
pounds) ,  or  one-iialf  a  mule  cargo : 


Years. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

Years. 

Imports. 

Exports. 

1912.    

Packages. 
52,415 
53,001 
44,230 
28,178 

Packages. 
119,326 
108,167 
103,907 
103,906 

1916 

Packages. 
3^,362 
32,350 
17,215 

Packages. 
97,098 

1913. 

1917 

95,417 

1914 

1918 

114,846 

1915 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  trade  declined  during  the  war  years  and 
that  exports  increased  during  1918,  probably  because  of  the  heavy 
coffee  crop  of  that  year.  Imports  for  1918  were  small,  but  the  com- 
mercial activity  of  the  district  was  greatly  stimulated  by  the  high 
prices  obtainea  for  the  large  coffee  crop  of  1919,  and  this  increased 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF  NIITE  COMMERCIAL,  DISTRICTS.      287 

activity  will  undoubtedly  be  reflected  by  an  increase  in  the  volume  of 
imports  for  the  year. 

TRADE  DISTRIBUTION  AND  METHODS. 

There  are  8  or  10  leading  merchants  in  Bucaramanga  whose  aggre- 
gate capital  is  probably  about  $500,000  Colombian,  (The  Colombian 
dollar  is  equal  to  $0.9733  United  States  currency.)  The  merchants 
ol  Bucaramanga  are  handicapped  by  their  lack  of  capital,  their 
isolation,  and  their  unfamiliarity  with  conditions  in  foreign  markets. 
Many  of  them  have  established  connections  in  the  small  towns  of 
the  district,  through  which  they  purchase  coffee,  cacao,  and  hides 
for  sale  .to  the  large  trading  and  exporting  houses  of  Barranquilla. 
They  generally  make  one  trip  each  year  to  the  coast  to  settle  old 
accounts  and  to  buy  new  stock. 

The  towns  of  Ocana  and  Pamplona  do  not  import  through  Buca- 
ramanga, though  in  a  sense  they  are  part  of  the  same  commercial 
district.  Ocana,  with  a  population  of  about  20,000,  is  situated  3,600 
feet  above  sea  level  in  the  heart  of  a  coffee  and  cacao  growing  region 
in  the  north  of  the  Department  of  Santander.  It  sends  to  the  ports 
of  the  Magdalena  an  average  of  104,200  packages,  or  6,760  metric  tons, 
of  freight  for  export  each  year,  and  its  imports  average  about  2,500 
tons.  Pamplona  and  Cucuta,  though  also  in  this  section  of  San- 
tander, generally  export  and  import  through  Venezuela. 

The  Bogota  importers  formerly  sold  to  the  Bucaramanga  mer- 
chants, and  even  to  those  of  Pamplona  and  Ocana,  but  most  of  this 
business  is  now  in  the  hands  of  Barranquilla  importers,  some  of 
whom  maintain  branches  or  hold  shares  in  local  stores  in  Bucara- 
manga, Ocana,  and  Pamplona.  Many  S^ian  traders  of  Barran- 
quilla and  Cartagena  have  strong  commercial  connections  in  Bucara- 
manga, Ocana,  and  Pamplona. 

TRADE  ROUTES. 

During  the  dry  season,  merchandise  destined  for  Bucaramanga  is 
sent  up  the  Magdalena  from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Wilches,  a  dis- 
tance of  404  miles,  and  then  90  miles  overland  by  mule  train  to 
Bucaramanga.  During  the  rainy  season,  merchandise  is  sometimes 
unloaded  at  Gamarra,  317  miles  up  the  Magdalena  from  Barran- 
quilla, and  sent  up  the  River  Lebrija  to  El  Choco,  a  distance  of  63 
miles,  or  to  La  Ceiba,  a  distance  of  69  miles.  From  either  of  these 
points  shipments  must  be  packed  overland  by  mule  trains  to  Bucara- 
manga, a  four  or  five  days'  journey.  It  is  also  possible  to  unload 
goods  at  Bodega  Sogamoso  and  send  them  up  the  Sogamoso  River 
about  22  miles  during  part  of  the  rainy  season.  This  is  a  much 
shorter  route  than  the  Lebrija,  but  the  shallowness  of  the  river  makes 
it  impracticable  most  of  the  year,  and  it  is  little  used. 

Travelers  wishing  to  reach  Bucaramanga  from  the  coast  generallv 
choose  the  Puerto  Wilches  route.  It  requires  from  two  and  one-half 
to  three  days  to  make  the  journey  from  the  end  of  the  short  Puerto 
Wilches-Bucaramanga  Railway  to  Bucaramanga.  There  are  no  good 
stopping  places  along  the  route,  and  the  trip  is  a  very  uncomfortable 
one  through  a  rough  country  covered  with  tropical  jungle. 

Work  has  been  started  on  a  road  which  is  to  extend  from 
Tamalameque  to  Ocana,  a  distance  of  160  miles,  and  eventually  from 


288    col-ombia:  a  oommerciat^  and  industriat.  handbook. 

Ocana  to  Pamplona  and  Cucuta.  The  plans  call  for  an  automobile 
road  capable  of  sustaining  tractor  and  truck  traffic  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  A  short  section  of  macadam  has  been  completed  from 
Ocana  toward  Tamalameque,  and  a  beginning  has  been  made  on  the 
section  between  Cucuta  and  Pamplona,  but  the  cost  of  building  a  road 
in  this  country  is  said  to  be  even  greater  than  the  cost  of  building 
a  narrow-gauge  railway,  and  the  work  is  progressing  very  slowly  be- 
cause of  lack  of  funds. 

PUERTO  WILCHES-BUCARAMANGA  RAILWAY. 

About  12  miles  of  the  proposed  meter-gauge  railway  from  Puerto 
Wilches  to  Bucaramanga  nave  been  completed  out  of  Puerto  Wilches, 
and  on  this  section  hand-car  service  is  maintained.  In  1917  this  line 
carried  2,014  passengers  and  808  tons  of  freight,  the  expenses  for  the 
year  being  about  $18,000,  or  more  than  twice  the  amount  of  the  gross 
receipts.  The  railway  was  originally  owned  by  an  English  company, 
but  is  now  controlled  by  the  Department  of  Santander,  which  nolds 
it  in  trust  for  the  National  Government. 

In  1919,  a  portion  of  a  new  internal-loan  bond  issue  was  assigned 
to  the  Department  of  Santander  to  be  used  for  construction  work  on 
this  railway,  and  the  Department  itself  assigned  the  total  proceeds 
of  the  internal-revenue  tax  on  tobacco  to  the  railway  work.  Work 
was  started  in  August,  1919,  but  progress  is  necessarily  slow,  and 
it  is  not  definitely  known  how  much  money  will  be  available.  It  is 
estimated  that  the  line  will  cost  more  than  S50,000  per  kilometer 
(0.62  mile).  The  total  length  will  be  about  90  miles.  In  addition 
to  the  construction  of  the  railway  itself,  a  landing  place  will  need 
to  be  built  at  Puerto  Wilches  for  the  river  steamers,  wnich,  in  seasons 
of  low  water,  can  not  approach  within  several  miles  of  the  town 
under  present  conditions. 

It  was  originally  planned  to  connect  the  Puerto  Wilches-Bucara- 
manga  Railway  with  the  projected  extension  of  the  Northern  Rail- 
way to  Chiquinquira,  thus  forming  a  link  in  the  proposed  trunk 
line  from  Bogota  to  the  Caribbean.  The  project  for  such  a  trunk  line 
seems  to  have  been  abandoned  in  favor  oi  the  so-called  Pacific  route, 
however.  As  the  country  between  Bucaramanga  and  Chiquinquira 
is  very  rough  and  sparsely  populated  it  seems  doubtful  whether  this 
extension  will  ever  oe  built. 

BANKING. 

Although  several  of  the  larger  business  houses  of  Bucaramanga 
do  more  or  less  of  a  private  banking  business,  the  city  has  only  one 
company  engaged  in  general  banking.  This  firm,  the  Compania 
Colombiana  de  Mutualidad,  also  carries  on  a  mutual  savings  and 
cooperative  life  insurance  business.  The  company's  balance  sheet 
showed  a  net  profit  of  $29,228  for  the  first  six  months  of  1919.  Out 
of  this  amount,  $16,066  was  distributed  as  dividends,  $6,343  added 
to  the  guaranty  fund,  $1,461  allotted  to  the  directors,  and  the 
remainder  distributed  among  a  number  of  small  funds.  This  bank- 
ing institution  takes  an  active  part  in  the  development  of  the  Depart- 
ment, aiding  in  the  installation  of  lighting  plants,  telephone  systems, 
and  other  public  utilities. 


ECONOMIC   CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE   COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      289 
AGRICULTURE  AND  UVE  STOCK. 

Tobacco  cultivation  and  manufacture  are  the  most  important 
industries  of  Santander,  raw  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes  being 
shipped  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  to  Boyaca,  to  Cundinamarca,  to 
Antioquia,  and  into  the  State  of  Tachira  in  Venezuela.  Antioquia  is 
the  most  important  of  these  markets,  the  raw  leaf  being  manufactured 
at  Medellin  for  shipment  to  other  parts  of  Colombia. 

From  the  data  available  it  may  be  estimated  that  about  920,000 
kilos  of  cigars,  60,000  kilos  of  cigarettes,  and  100,000  kilos  of  leaf 
tobacco  for  export  were  produced  in  the  Department  of  Santander 
during  1918;  and  using  these  production  figures  as  a  basis  it  may  be 
conclude'd  that  approximately  2,100  acres  were  planted  in  tobacco. 
Santander  has  the  usual  local  consumption  tax  on  manufactured 
tobacco. 

Chief  among  the  other  agricultural  products  of  Santander  are 
coffee  and  cacao.  It  may  be  said  that  the  Department  produces 
annually  an  average  of  60,000  sacks  of  coffee  and  20,000  sacks  of  cacao. 
The  output  of  cacao  is  declining,  but  it  is  predicted  that  the  high 
prices  of  1919  will  stimulate  the  production  of  coffee  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  will  show  an  increase  of  60  per  cent  within  the  next  four 
years. 

Good  grazing  land  in  Santander  is  limited,  but  sufficient  cattle  are 
raised  to  supply  the  local  demand.  The  breeding  of  mules  for  pack 
service  is  a  profitable  business,  the  demand  for  these  animals  being 
especially  good  during  1919. 

CmCLE  INDUSTRY. 

In  1917  a  chicle  expert  went  from  Mexico  to  Colombia  to  promote 
the  work  of  collecting  the  gum  in  that  country.  His  first  well-organ- 
ized expedition  was  made  through  a  large  tract  of  private  property 
extending  along  the  Sogamoso  Kiver  south  of  Bucaramanga.  He 
found  that  the  chicle  of  this  region  differed  somewhat  from  the  Mexi- 
can variety,  and  that  it  must  be  mixed  with  the  Mexican  product  in 
the  manufacture  of  chewing  gum. 

During  the  calendar  year  1918  chicle  to  the  amount  of  690,496 
pounds,  valued  at  $278,654,  was  imported  into  the  United  States  from 
Colombia;  probably  about  half  of  this  amount  came  from  the  So- 
gamoso River  region.  In  1919  American  imports  of  this  gum  from 
Colombia  amounted  to  1,777,747  pounds,  valued  at  $570,864. 

Laborers  as  a  rule  will  work  at  chicle  gathering  only  during  the 
dry  season  when  placer  mining  is  impossible  and  when  they  are  not 
engaged  in  planting  corn  or  tobacco  or  picking  coffee.  They  will  not 
go  into  the  jungles  to  gather  the  gum  at  all  except  for  high  wages, 
so  exports  of  chicle  from  Colombia  will  probably  be  negligible  except 
when  market  prices  are  high.  One  of  the  gravest  difficulties  has  been 
the  securing  of  the  pure  chicle  gum,  for  the  laborers  soon  learn  to 
mix  it  with  other  gums  more  easily  procured  in  order  to  obtain  pay- 
ment for  additional  weight. 

ATTEMPT  TO  INTRODUCE  SILK  CULTURE. 

An  attempt  is  being  made  to  introduce  silk  culture  into  the  Buca- 
ramanga district.  Mulberry  trees  have  been  grown  successfully  and 
a  very  good  quality  of  raw  silk  has  been  produced.    In  1915  theColom- 

37558°— 21 19 


290      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

bian  Government  authorized  an  annual  appropriation  to  be  devoted 
to  the  promotion  of  the  silk  industry;  part  of  the  first  sum  was  to  be 
used  for  the  purchase  of  three  spinning  machines  for  Bucaramanga. 
In  1918  and  1919  special  courses  in  silk  production  were  offered  in 
Bucaramanga  and  were  taken  by  about  30  people.  However,  silk 
culture  requires  considerable  time  and  manual  dexterity.  The  raising 
of  coffee  and  cacao  is  easier,  and  the  people  of  the  lower  classes  are 
not  anxious  to  attempt  anything  new.  It  therefore  seems  doubtful 
whether  the  efforts  to  introduce  silk  culture  will  be  very  successful. 

CUCUTA  AND  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT. 

LOCATION  AND  GENERAL  CHARACTERISTICS.' 

The  city  of  San  Jose  de  Cucuta  is  situated  on  a  level  plain  sur- 
rounded by  low  hills,  at  an  elevation  of  about  1,000  feet  above  sea 
level,  near  the  boundary  with  the  Venezuelan  State  of  Tachira. 
Cucuta  is  the  capital  of  the  Colombian  Department  of  Norte  de  San- 
tander,  and  it  is  in  the  extreme  eastern  part  of  the  Department. 

To  the  south  lies  the  important  interior  city  of  Pamplona,  connected 
with  Cucuta  by  a  new  wagon  road  (not  yet  completed;  see  p.  293). 
In  time  it  is  hoped  to  build  this  road  as  far  as  Bucaramanga,  but  the 
intervening  country  is  mountainous  and  very  rough.  Pamplona 
has  a  population  of  about  16,500  and  is  situated  at  an  altitude  of  about 
7,100  feet  above  sea  level.  It  is  surrounded  by  coffee  planta- 
tions, together  with  some  cacao  plantations.  Hats  are  also  exported. 
Its  trade  goes  to  Cucuta,  where  its  merchants  buy  at  wholesale. 

Ocana  is  the  town  next  in  importance  in  the  Department  of  Norte 
de  Santander.  It  has  a  population  of  about  20,000  and  is  located 
farther  to  the  north  and  nearer  the  Magdalena  River,  on  the  side  of 
the  range  west  from  Cucuta.  The  elevation  is  3,600  feet.  The 
region  produces  some  coffee  and  cacao,  and  Panama  hats  are  also 
exported,  but  this  trade  moves  out  by  pack  mule  to  the  Rio  Lebrija 
and  thence  down  the  Magdalena  River.  This  district  is  commercially 
tributary  to  Barranouilla,  and  some  goods  are  purchased  at  whole- 
sale in  Cartagena.  The  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the  Departr 
ment  of  Norte  de  Santander  are  sparsely  inhabited,  and  the  country 
is  broken  and  mountainous,  making  transportation  slow  and  costly 

AREA,  POPULATION,  AND  CLIMATE. 

The  area  of  the  entire  Department  is  6,708  square  miles,  divided 
into  three  districts,  and  the  total  population  is  aoout  250,000.  The 
capitals  of  the  Provinces  are  Ocana,  Pamplona,  and  Cucuta. 

The  city  of  Cucuta  has  a  population  of  about  24,000.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  are  mulattoes,  while  possibly  10  per  cent  are  pure 
white.  There  is  a  small  colonv  of  foreigners,  the  largest  merchants 
being  Germans,  who  have  been  long  established  there. 

The  climate  of  Cucuta  is  hot  and  unhealthful;  there  is  much  mala- 
rial disease  and  occasional  epidemics  of  yellow  fever. 

APPEARANCE  AND  PUBUC  UTILITIES  OF  CUCUTA. 

The  town  has  suffered  from  frequent  earthquakes  in  the  past  and 
was  almost  totally  destroyed  in  1875  by  a  series  of  severe  shocks. 
The  city  was  rebuilt,  however,  and  has  prospered  in  modern  times. 
At  the  time  of  the  rebuilding,  the  town  was  laid  out  in  wide,  open 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTICS  OF   NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICTS.      291 


streets,  fringed  with  trees — in  great  contrast  to  the  narrow  streets 
of  other  small  Spanish  American  towns,  where  the  old  Spanish  colo- 
nial design  still  remains.  The  city  has  a  steam  tramway,  electric 
lights,  telephone  service,  a  theater,  a  covered  public  market,  and  a 
slaughterhouse. 


COMMERCE  AND  TRADE. 


Shut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  Republic  by  the  barrier  of  the  Eastern 
Cordillera  and  the  distance  to  the  Magdalena  River,  Cucuta  is  polit- 
ically part  of  Colombia  but  is  actuaUy  dependent  upon  Venezuela 


292    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

for  means  of  access  to  foreign  markets.  Coffee  and  other  exports 
find  their  way  out  over  the  Cucuta  Railway  to  the  River  Zuha  (which 
rises  in  Colombia  south  of  Cucuta  but  is  not  navigable  until  it  has 
flowed  some  distance  into  Venezuela)  and  thence  by  river  steamer  to 
Lake'  Maracaibo  and  the  port  of  Maracaibo,  where  transfer  is  made 
to  small  coastwise  steamers  that  finally  convey  exports  to  ports  of 
embarkation  for  ocean  vessels,  such  as  Puerto  Cabello  or  La  Guaira. 
For  a  number  of  years  there  have  been  projects  of  road  building 
to  connect  Cucuta  with  the  Magdalena  River  and  thereby  liberate  its 
commerce  from  the  restrictions  and  impositions  of  the  Venezuelan 
Government.  Some  work  has  been  done  recently  on  the  wagon  road 
each  way  from  Ocana,  but  the  high  cost  of  this  work  and  the  difficult 

f  round  to  be  covered,  combined  with  the  lack  of  population  and  pro- 
uction,  make  this  rather  a  matter  of  political  necessity  to  be  solved 
by  the  National  Government. 

Nearly  half  the  trade  of  Cucuta  is  in  the  hands  of  four  lar^e  German 
firms,  closely  affiliated  with  the  German  firms  of  Maracaibo;  there 
are  also  a  few  firms  of  native  Colombians. 
Exports  for  1918  were  as  follows: 

[Kilo=2.2046  pounds;  Colombian  doll3r=$0.9733.1 


Articles. 


Kilos. 


Value. 


Coffee  (92,768  sacks) 

Hides  (7,734) 

Flour  (302 sacks)... 
Bags  ("fique") 

Total 


5,375,500 
91,564 
17,036 
16,656 


5,500,756 


Colombian 

dollars. 

788,338 

42,020 

5,519 

6,188 


842,065 


Imports  for  1918  were  as  follows: 


Articles. 


Kaos. 


Value. 


Oil  and  greases 

Foodstuffs  I 

Combustibles 

Agricultural  implements,  etc 

Arts  and  trades 

Paints,  varnishes,  colors 

Wines,  liquors,  etc 

Crystal,  glass,  chinaware 

Rubber,  celluloid,  etc 

Shell,  bone,  etc 

Leather  manufactures 

Drugs  and  medicines 

Electrical  supplies 

Musical  instruments 

Locomoti  ves  andrailway  equipment 

Metals  and  manufactures  of. 

Paper  and  paper  products 

Soaps  and  perfumes 

Textiles 

Miscellaneous 

Totals. .. . : 


1  Including  739,247  kilos  of  salt,  valued  at  21,113  ColombiaQ  dollars. 
*  Duties  of  72,599  dollars  were  collected. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

21,323 

2,873 

812,820 

47,568 

61, 414 

11,819 

11,310 

5,114 

9,133 

2,950 

6,589 

2,057 

15,567 

3,747 

20,685 

2,876 

44 

211 

176 

302 

210 

1,277 

37,296 

15,145 

3,104 

3,719 

169 

85 

3,202 

3,364 

50,346 

11,279 

27,552 

8,029 

569 

565 

37,901 

87,098 

1,922 

741 

1,121,332 


*  210, 819 


ECONOMIC  CHARACTERISTIC^  OF  NINE  COMMERCIAL  DISTRICT^     293 

The  larger  merchants  of  Cucuta  purchase  through  export  commis- 
sion houses  of  New  York  and  Europe,  about  one-half  of  the  trade  in 
textiles  going  to  England.  Shipments  are  consigned  in  care  of  for- 
warding agents  at  Maracaibo  for  transshipment  to  Cucuta  via  the 
River  Zulia  and  the  railway  to  Cucuta. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

RIVER   TRAFFIC. 

Cut  off  from  commercial  intercourse  with  Colombia,  the  trade  of 
Cucuta  and  Pamplona  has  sought  the  easiest  route  of  egress  via  the 
River  Zulia,  which  flows  into  the  River  Catatumbo  in  Venezuelan 
territory  and  affords  steamer  navigation  to  Lake  Maracaibo  (called 
a  lake  but  in  reality  a  deep-sea  guu  of  shallow  water).  The  voyage 
from  the  city  of  Maracaibo  to  Puerto  Villamizar,  via  Lake  Maracaibo, 
the  River  Catatumbo,  and  the  River  Zulia  takes  about  three  days, 
passengers  and  freight  having  to  be  transferred,  at  the  junction  of 
the  two  rivers,  to  the  smaller  steamers  plying  on  the  Zuha.  Puerto 
Villamizar  is  35  miles  from  the  city  of  Cucuta  by  the  old  road. 

CUCUTA   RAILWAY. 

The  Cucuta  Railway  was  built  in  1888  from  Cucuta  to  Puerto  Vil- 
lamizar to  serve  as  the  connecting  link  between  river  navigation,  and 
later  the  same  company,  the  Compania  del  Ferrocarril  de  Cucuta, 
extended  its  lihe  10  miles  to  the  Venezuelan  border,  making  a  total 
of  45  miles.  In  spite  of  the  competition  created  by  the  construction 
of  a  near-by  raUway  in  Venezuela,  and  the  unfavorable  attitude  of 
the  Venezuelan  Government  toward  Colombian  trade,  this  company, 
composed  entirely  of  native  capital  (of  which  the  municipality  of 
Cucuta  is  owner  of  a  one-third  interest),  has  managed  to  hola  its  own, 
pay  dividends,  and  reduce  its  bonded  indebtedness.  The  gauge  of 
the  track  is  1  meter  (3.2808  feet).  Wood  is  used  as  fuel.  There  are 
no  tunnels  or  large  bridges.  In  1917  the  line  handled  112,340  pas- 
sengers and  21,150  metric  tons  of  freight,  the  gross  returns  being 
221,564  Colombian  dollars  and  the  expenses  172,551  dollars,  leaving 
a  profit  of  49,013  dollars — expenses  bemg  77.87  per  cent  of  the  total 
returns. 


From  time  to  time  there  has  been  agitation  in  Colombia  for  a  road 
from  Cucuta  to  the  Magdalena,  and  in  1917  Law  No.  42  declared  this 
projected  road  to  be  oi  the  first  class  and  contracted  with  the  De- 
partment of  Norte  de  Santander  for  its  construction  and  exploita- 
tion, including  the  roads  of  Pamplona,  Sarare,  and  Tame.  The  sum 
of  50,000  Colombian  dollars  was  authorized  to  be  spent  in  the  Ocana 
section  and  24,000  dollars  on  the  Sarare  road  from  Pamplona  to 
Arauca  (this  latter  not  being  a  wagon  road) . 

The  section  from  Cucuta  to  Pamplona  now  has  19  kilometers 
under  construction,  and  at  Pamplona  tnere  has  been  built  a  large  dam 
serving  as  the  approach  to  the  town.  A  total  of  220,567  Colombian 
dollars  has  been  spent  thus  far  on  this  road,  which  is  planned  as  a 
wagon  road  of  6  per  cent  grade,  carrying  a  macadam  suriace  4  meters 
wide. 


294    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

The  wagon  road  from  Cucuta  to  the  Magdalena  was  declared  to  be 
of  urgent  national  necessity  in  1917,  the  work  was  placed  in  charge 
of  the  departmental  government,  and  50,000  dollars  was  appropriated 
from  the  National  Treasury  to  bring  about  greater  activity  on  this 
important  work.  About  8  kilometers  have  been  constructed,  between 
Ocana  and  Las  Animas  toward  the  river  (the  total  distance  being  260 
kilometers),  and  40,079  dollars  of  the  national  appropriation  has 
been  spent  up  to  the  present  time,  while  an  additional  18,703  dollars 
has  been  spent  by  the  departmental  government. 

Work  on  these  roads  has  been  going  on  for  years  past,  but  mistakes 
have  been  made  in  their  location  and  the  early  fills  and  cuts  have  been 
partly  destroyed  by  slides  and  washouts,  so  that  very  little  has  been 
accomplished.  The  main  difficulty  seems  to  lie  in  the  great  length 
of  these  roads,  which  cross  a  very  broken  country,  all  mountainous, 
and  many  small  and  swift  streams.  There  have  never  been  sufficient 
funds  on  hand  at  any  one  time  to  make  the  work  count,  and  the  dis- 
tricts traversed  are  sparsely  populated  and  not  rich  enough  to  sup- 
port the  expense  of  road  building  on  the  scale  required.  As  a  matter 
of  fact,  past  experience  has  shown  that  it  costs  at  least  as  much,  on 
an  average,  to  construct  1  kilometer  of  good  and  permanent  wagon 
road  in  this  rough  and  broken  country,  where  steep  grades  and  tor- 
rential rains  have  to  be  contended  with,  as  it  does  to  Duild  the  same 
length  of  narrow-gauge  railway,  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  is 
higher.  About  50  roads  are  planned  in  Colombia,  and  only  two  of 
these  are  to-day  of  sufficient  length  to  make  them  of  actual  utility — 
the  Great  Central  Northern  Highway  out  of  Bogota  to  the  north  and 
the  road  from  Palmira  to  Buga  in  the  Cauca  Valley. 

The  appropriation  of  24,000  Colombian  dollars,  mentioned  above, 
was  for  the  pack  trail  from  Pamplona  to  the  border  town  of  Arauca, 
where  there  is  access  to  the  plams  of  the  Casanare,  as  well  as  some 
small  trade  with  the  Upper  Orinoco,  principally  in  hides  and  rubber. 


TRANSPORTATION. 

RAILWAYS. 

An  account  of  the  railways  of  each  commercial  district  of  Colombia 
will  be  found  in  the  appropriate  district  report  (see  p.  185).  Addi- 
tional information  with  regard  to  certain  of  the  lines  is  given  in  the 
''Travel  notes"  beginning  on  page  393.  Consequently,  it  is  not 
considered  necessary  to  repeat  in  the  present  chapter  the  detailed 
data  that  are  available  elsewhere  in  the  book. 

The  following  discussion  will  be  confined,  therefore,  to  .a  considera- 
tion of  the  broader  aspects  of  Colombia's  railway  problems,  with 
special  emphasis  on  the  projected  line  from  Bogota  to  the  Pacific 
and  on  the  national  legislation  governing  railway  construction  and 
operation. 

PREVIOUS  EXPERIENCES  AND  PRESENT  OPPORTUNTnES  IN  RAILWAY  BUILDING. 

Viewing  the  transportation  problem  in  Colombia  in  a  general  way, 
and  judgmg  from  tne  past  experience  of  foreign  companies  which 
have  built  roads  in  this  country,  it  is  evident  that  the  construction  of 
main  trunk  lines  presents  a  very  difficult  problem.  Many  natural 
difficulties  are  encountered,  such  as  the  climate,  the  floods  of  the  low 
coastal  region,  and  the  mountainous  character  of  the  interior;  these 
all  make  railway  construction  very  costly — entirely  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  actual  tonnage  of  traffic  available  in  the  country  at  this 
time.  The  previous  experience  of  the  National  Government  with 
railway  promoters  and  foreign  companies  has  been  very  unsatis- 
factory; the  authorities  are  suspicious  of  new  offers  and  constantly 
fear  the  intervention  of  powerful  foreign  governments  in  the  affairs 
of  foreign  companies  who  may  have  claims  against  the  National 
Government  growing  out  of  railway  contracts  and  transportation 
schemes.  The  present  plan  of  financing  new  construction  by  means 
of  internal  loans  appears  harmful  to  the  country  in  general,  since  it 
takes  Colombia's  small  amount  of  available  surplus  capital  which 
should  rather  be  invested  in  the  country  for  national,  industrial,  and 
a^icultural  development.  Business  men  are  therefore  in  favor  of 
the  building  of  all  new  main  lines  of  railway  with  foreign  capital: 
but  at  the  present  rate  of  progress  of  national  construction  it  will 
take  many  years  of  slow  and  painful  work  to  secure  a  trunk  outlet 
from  the  interior  to  the  sea,  on  either  the  Atlantic  or  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  In  the  meantime  the  country  is  suffering  from  the  lack  of 
transportation  and  its  inability  to  take  full  advantage  of  the  present 
market  conditions.  The  national  development  is  thus  retarded  and 
hindered. 

Several  existing  lines  should  never  have  been  built  or  are  badly 
located,  and  foreign  concessions  have  cost  the  Government  a  great  deal 
of  trouble  and  money,  with  meager  results  in  actual  lines  constructed 
(an  example  being  tne  Puerto  Wilches  contract  in  Santander).  The 
Girardot  Railway  is  badly  located  and  should  have  been  built  to  the 
Lower  instead  of  the  Upper  River  (over  the  same  distance  and  at 
practically  the  same  cost),  thus  avoiding  the  delays  and  excessive 
costs  of  the  Upper  River  navigation.  In  the  opinion  of  experts,  the 
Cartagena-Calamar  line  and  the  Puerto  Colombia-BarranquUla  line 

295 


296    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

should  never  have  been  built;  the  opening  of  the  Cartagena  ' '  Dique  " 
would  have  cost  less,  would  have  afforded  a  better  seaport  at  Carta- 
gena, and  would  have  made  possible  direct  connections  between  river 
steamers  and  ocean  vessels,  thus  eliminating  the  necessity  for  the 
railways  and  providing  lower  freight  and  handling  costs.  The 
Antioquia  Railway  from  Puerto  Berrio  to  Medellin  (as  yet  uncom- 
pleted) was  also  badly  located;  it  should  have  been  constructed 
down  the  Force  Valley  to  the  north  from  Medellin  to  seek  a  direct 
rail  outlet  to  the  sea  at  Cartagena,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  the 
long  400-mile  river  haul,  always  slow  and  costly,  and  at  the  same  time 
opening  up  a  rich  mining  and  agricultural  section  in  the  Departments 
of  Antioquia  and  Bolivar.  Plans  are  now  under  way  for  the  building 
of  this  road  from  Cartagena  to  Medellin,  the  construction  work  to  be 
performed  by  the  departments  of  Bolivar  and  Antioquia  in  their 
respective  territories;  the  Bolivar  section,  to  go  by  way  of  El  Carmen 
ana  Monteria,  is  now  declared  national  and  subsidized  by  the  National 
Government.  The  building  of  this  railway  presents  an  opportunity 
for  foreign  capital,  because  the  line  will  pass  through  a  producing  and 
potentially  rich  cattle  and  agricultural  region  capable  of  great  develop- 
ment, and  also  a  rich  mining  region  farther  to  the  south  in  Antioquia. 
The  building  of  the  new  link  between  Beltran  on  the  Upper  River 
and  Ibague,  via  Girardot,  is  another  much  needed  and  potentially 
profitable  investment,  as  this  line  will  eliminate  the  navigation  of 
the  Upper  River  and  will  connect  with  the  Pacific  Railway,  tapping 
the  two  most  productive  coffee  districts  of  the  country.  This  line 
is  now  under  contract  with  Pedro  A.  Lopez  &  Co.,  of  Bogota. 

CONTEMPLATED  LINE  FROM  PACIFIC  COAST  TO  BOGOTA. 

The  largest  and  most  important  railway  project  of  Colombia  is 
that  for  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway  from  Palmira,  in  the 
Cauca  Valley,  via  Zarzal  and  thence  east  over  the  Quindio  Pass  of 
the  Central  Cordillera  to  Ibague,  thus  placing  Bogota  in  direct 
rail  connection  with  the  Pacific  coast  and  diverting  a  very  large 
portion  of  the  tonnage  of  the  country  from  the  Magdalena  River 
route  to  the  Pacific  port  of  Buenaventura.  Although  this  line  will 
have  to  cross  the  mountain  range  at  an  elevation  of  about  12,000 
feet,  the  ascent  and  descent  are  easy,  with  no  difficult  engmeering 
problems.  Even  in  the  most  mountainous  sections,  the  line  will 
pass  through  a  rich  coffee-producing  country,  and  the  local  traffic 
will  also  be  great.  It  is  estimated  that  the  tonnage  available  arid 
to  be  diverted  to  this  line  will  be  more  than  sufficient  to  take  care 
of  the  interest  on  the  bonds  covering  the  cost  of  construction.  The 
exploitation  of  the  coal  fields  of  Cali  is  closely  related  to  the  improve- 
ment and  extension  of  the  Pacific  Railway. 

The  total  cost  of  the  completion  of  the  Pacific  System  through  to 
Bogota  and  the  rebuilding  of^ certain  parts  of  the  present  line  between 
Call  and  Buenaventura,  with  the  erection  of  coal  docks  at  Buenaven- 
tura, is  estimated  roughly  at  $50,000,000. 

Two  connecting  links  in  the  proposed  Pacific-coast-to-Bo^ota 
line  have  already  been  constructed — namely,  (1)  the  Pacific  Rail- 
way, from  Buenaventura  to  Palmira  (25  kilometers,  or  IG  miles, 
east  of  Cali),  and  (2)  the  Girardot  and  Sabana  Railways,  from  Girar- 
dot, on  the  Upper  Magdalena  River,  via  Facatativa  to  Bogota. 
Another  link,  the  ToUma  Railway,  is  now  under  construction  and  will 


Special  Agents  Series  No.  206, 


FIG.  22.— TRAIN  ON   PACIFIC   RAILWAY,   BUENAVENTURA  TO  CALL 


FIG.  23.— STEAMER  ON  CAUCA  RIVER. 


TRANSPORTATION.  '297 

soon  be  completed — from  the  Magdalena  River,  opposite  Girardot, 
to  Ibague,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Tolima. 

The  Colombian  Government  has  definitely  decided  to  push  the 
work  on  this  Pacific  route,  an  important  step  in  this  direction  being 
taken  in  September,  1919,  when  the  existing  Pacific  Railway  (Buena- 
ventura to  Palmira)  was  taken  over  by  the  Government  with  the 
intention  of  going  ahead  with  new  construction,  down  the  Cauca 
Valley  and  approaching  the  Quindio  Pass.  The  Girardot  Railway 
also  IS  now  under  the  control  of  the  central  Government,  but  the 
Tolima  Railway  is  departmental  and  is  being  rushed  to  completion 
as  far  as  Ibague  by  a  Colombian  banking  house  under  contract 
with  the  Department  of  Tolima. 

The  Government  paid  40,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilometer 
for  the  Buenaventura-Cali  part  of  the  railway,  and  the  subvention 
for  the  Palmira-Cartago  line  was  to  be  38,000  dollars  per  kilometer. 
The  232  kilometers  (144  miles)  of  line  constructed,  including  the 
Popayan  branch,  has  cost  the  Government  10,800,000  dollars,  which 
sum  mcludes  the  cost  of  reconstruction  of  that  part  of  the  line  near 
Buenaventura,  built  many  years  ago.  Payment  was  made  by  the 
assiOTiment  to  the  railway  company  of  one-half  of  the  proceeds  of 
the  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco  customhouses  and  with  drafts  against 
customs  receipts  which  earned  8  per  cent  interest.  The  revenue 
thus  assigned  to  the  railway  did  not  meet  the  cost  of  the  work,  and 
the  Government,  when  it  took  over  the  railway  in  1919,  still  owed 
large  sums  to  the  company  for  arrears  in  these  payments.  The 
company  also  collected  from  the  Government  one-half  of  the  deficit 
in  the  operation  of  the  road. 

The  following  statement  shows  the  distances  on  the  Pacific  route: 

Lines  constructed:                                                                        Kilometers.  Miles. 

Sabana  Railway 40  25 

Girardot  Railway 132  82 

Tolima  Railway 30  19 

Pacific  Railway 233  145 

Total  constructed 435  271 

Lines  to  be  constructed : 

Tolima  Railway,  to  be  completed 130  81 

Pacific  Railway,  Palmira  to  Zarzal  (approximately). .   100  62 

Zarzal  to  Ibague  via  Quindio  (approximately) 200  124 

Total  to  be  constructed 430  267 

The  line  from  Palmira  to  Zarzal,  the  point  of  leaving  the  Cauca 
Valley  for  the  Quindio  Pass,  will  be  over  practically  level  country, 
and  the  work  should  not  exceed  18,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilo- 
meter (0.62  mile)  for  a  3-foot  track.  But  the  mountain  work  in  the 
Quindio  will  cost  very  much  more,  with  many  kilometers  of  track 
costing  as  high  as  100,000  dollars  each.  Only  an  approximate 
estimate  can  be  made  of  the  probable  costs,  since  there  has  been  no 
survey  of  the  Quindio  Pass  and  the  actual  rail  distance  is  not  known 
at  this  time. 

Accurate  figures  were  obtained  by  the  writer,  comparing  the  cost 
of  freight  from  Manizales  to  New  York  via  the  Magdalena  River  route 
and  from  Manizales  to  New  York  via  the  Pacific  route  (products 
in  the  latter  case  bein^  shipped  out  by  way  of  Buenaventura). 
With  coffee  as  a  unit,  the  charges  on  the  Pacific  route  per  ton  of 
2,240  pounds  were  $16  less  than  on  the  Magdalena  route.  With  the 
extension  of  the  Pacific  Railway  from  Palmira  to  Ibague  and  the 


298    COLOMBIA:  A  oommercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

completion  of  the  Tolima  Railway,  freight  charges  from  Bogota  to 
Buenaventura  would  amount  to  about  one-half  of  what  it  now  costs 
to  lay  1  ton  of  freight  from  Bogota  down  in  Barranquilla.  The 
charges  to  Barranquilla  at  the  present  time  are  all  the  way  from 
$75  to  $102  per  ton,  according  to  the  class  of  goods  handled. 

RAILWAY  LAWS. 

The  basic  railway  law  in  Colombia  is  that  of  1892,  No.  104,  which 
is  still  in  force.  By  virtue  of  this  legislation  the  Executive  may 
grant  railway  concessions  and  subsidies  without  further  confirmatory 
legislation  within  the  prescribed  limitations  of  this  law. 

A  subsidy  may  be  either  (1)  a  grant  of  not  more  than  300  hectares 
of  public  lands  and  a  sum  not  exceeding  10,000  Colombian  dollars 
per  kilometer  of  line  constructed,  payable  in  6  per  cent  bonds, 
amortizable  by  10  per  cent  of  the  gross  customs  receipts  of  all  the 
customhouses  of  the  country,  or  (2)  a  guaranty  of  interest  not 
exceeding  7  per  cent  per  annum  for  20  years  on  the  capital  actually 
invested,  not  greater  than  30,000  dollars  per  kilometer  of  line  con- 
structed. If  the  road's  net  income  should,  however,  during  three 
consecutive  years  be  sufficient  to  cover  the  interest  guaranteed,  the 
Government  s  obligation  terminates,  regardless  of  future  earnings. 

Also,  concessions  may  be  for  the  term  of  100  years,  the  Govern- 
ment reserving  the  right  to  purchase  the  property  for  cash  at  any 
time  after  50  years  at  the  appraised  valuation  and  after  75  years  at 
one-half  this  valuation.  At  the  end  of  the  full  term  of  the  1 00-year 
concession  the  railway,  together  with  its  equipment  and  rolling 
stock  (all  to  be  in  good  condition),  becomes  the  property  of  the 
Government  without  payment. 

The  subsidy  of  10,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilometer  amounts 
to  about  $16,000  United  States  currency  per  mile.  This  is  for  track 
of  3-foot  gauge  or  wider,  construction  to  oe  accqrding  to  the  official 
specifications,  on  level  ground ;  and  the  subsidy  has  been  increased 
to  15,000  dollars  per  kilometer  for  roads  built  in  the  mountains. 
The  official  specifications  are  given  below: 

Single  track  with  sidings  according  to  traffic  requirements,  1-meter  gauge. 

Maximum  grade,  3  per  cent,  compensated  on  curves. 

Minimum  radius  of  curvature,  80  meters  (262.4  feet)  on  line  and  50  meters  (164  feet) 
on  sidings . 

Between  two  opposing  curves  there  must  be  a  tangent  of  not  less  than  30  meters 
(98.4  feet). 

The  limits  fixed  for  curves,  grades,  and  tangents  are  not  to  be  construed  by  con- 
cessionaries or  constructors  aa  averages,  but  are  limits  to  be  used  only  in  exceptional 
cases. 

Changes  of  grades  must  be  conveniently  effected  by  vertical  curves.  Changes  of 
grade  on  horizontal  curves  must  be  avoided. 

On  curves  the  outside  rail  must  have  a  superelevation  corresponding  to  a  velocity 
of  30  kilometers  (18.64  miles)  per  hour.  Straight  stretches  of  track  must  approach 
curves  by  means  of  convenient  transitional  curves. 

Before  leveling  in  forest  country,  timber  must  be  cleared  20  meters  (65.6  feet) 
on  each  side  of  center  of  track,  and  heavy  trees  that  menace  the  track  must  be  felled, 
no  matter  what  their  distance  from  the  track  may  be. 

When  the  track  is  on  the  side  of  a  mountain,  clear  25  meters  (82  feet)  above  and 
15  meters  (49.2  feet)  below  center  of  track. 

Width  01  base  will  be  4  meters  (13.12  feet)  at  bottom  of  cuts,  including  ditches, 
and  3  meters  (9.84  feet)  at  top  of  graded  track. 

Slope  of  cuts  must  be  as  folkiws:  In  hard  rock  necessitating  explosives,  one-quarter 
to  one-fifth  of  base  to  one  of  height;  in  soft  rock,  one-third  of  base  to  one  of  height; 
in  hard  earth  without  filtrations,  one-half  of  base  to  one  of  height;  in  sand  or  gravel, 
one  and  one-half  to  two  of  base  to  one  of  height. 


TEANSPORTATION.  299 

Slope  of  roadbed  must  be:  With  sandy  or  ordinary  soil  exposed  to  action  of  water, 
two  or  three  for  one;  with  earth  not  exposed  to  the  action  of  water,  one  and  one-half 
for  one;  with  stone  placed  by  hand,  three-quarters  or  one-half  for  one. 

In  no  roadbed  mav  there  he  ditches  witn  less  than  60  centimeters  (1.97  feet)  to 

1  meter  (3.28  feet)  of  berm,  according  to  height. 

Ditches  in  cuts  must  be  parallel  to  the  axis  of  track  and  must  have  a  slope  of  one- 
half  of  base  to  one  of  height. 

In  constructing  the  line  along  river  valleys,  ravines,  etc.,  the  base  of  the  roadbed 
must  be  higher  than  high- water  mark,  and  where  this  is  not  possible  retaining  walls 
must  be  built  to  prevent  washouts.  This  must  be  done  wherever  the  roadbed  is 
exposed  to  attack  from  water.  All  work  of  this  kind  must  be  of  a  permanent  nature, 
so  only  first-class  materials  must  enter  into  the  composition,  such  as  iron,  stone, 
brick,  etc. 

In  the  case  of  important  structures,  such  as  station  buildings,  bridges  of  more  than 
10  meters  (32.8  feetj  span,  etc.,  all  plans  must  be  approved  by  the  Minister  of  Public 
Works. 

In  retaining  walls,  bridge  abutments,  etc.,  faced  stone  must  be  need  so  that  all 
parts  present  a  smooth  surface.     The  copings  of  walls  must  have  a  convenient  slope. 

Ballast  for  track  must  be  of  crushed  stone  or  rubble  of  good  quality,  with  a  thick- 
ness of  not  less  than  20  centimeters  (7.87  inches)  below  the  crossties,  must  rise  to  the 
level  of  these,  must  be  of  such  nature  as  to  distribute  the  pressure  of  the  trains  over 
the  rails,  and  must  be  porous,  to  keep  the  ties  dry. 

Ties  must  be  of  guayacan  or  any  long-lived  wood  without  cuts  or  whiteness  and 
conveniently  worked,  or  of  iron  or  steel,  at  discretion  of  constructor.     They  must  be 

2  meters  long,  and  if  of  wood  must  be  20  centimeters  (7.87  inches)  in  width  and  15 
centimeters  {5.9  inches)  in  thickness.  The  number  of  ties  per  kilometer  (0.62  mile) 
must  not  be  less  than  1,650. 

Rails  must  be  of  good-quality  steel  of  the  VignoUe  type  and  of  a  minimum  weight 
of  45  pounds  per  yard.  Rails  must  be  fastened  to  ties  by  means  of  spikes  or  screws, 
aiid  joints  must  be  of  angle  bars,  with  a  resistance  in  each  pair  conforming  to  estal)- 
lifihed  technical  rules  and  having  the  usual  coefficient  of  safety  for  the  operation  of 
the  heaviest  engine  on  the  line.  Angle  bars  must  have  grooves  equidistant  from  the 
center,  to  receive  the  spikes,  in  order  to  prevent  the  track  from  spreading.  Each 
joint  must  have  four  bolts  with  steel  washers,  so  that  the  trepidation  produced  by 
trains  wiU  not  loosen  the  nuts.  Rail  joints  must  be  opposite  to  each  other  on  straight 
track  and  between  ties. 

(jirades  and  curves  must  allow  of  the  heaviest  locomotive  in  the  service  pulling  a 
weight  of  100  tons  at  a  minimum  velocity  of  30  kilometers  (18.64  miles)  per  hour. 

Necessary  drains  and  waterways  must  be  made  to  keep  track  in  good  condition. 

On  road  crossings,  whether  public  or  private,  passageways  must  be  made  either 
overhead  or  underneath  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  traffic,  and  in  the  case  of  grade  cross- 
ings guard  rails  must  be  provided,  with  gates  or  barriers  for  the  security  of  the  public. 

In  the  terminal  stations  at  the  ends  of  the  line  the  construction  shall  be  of  masonry, 
with  tile  or  metallic  roofing.  At  intermediate  points  secondary  construction  shall 
be  provided  to  meet  the  approval  of  the  supervising  engineer. 

The  rolling  stock  must  consist  of  at  least  one  engine,  three  passenger  cars,  and  six 
freight  cars  per  kilometer  (0.62  mile)  of  road.  Passenger  cars,  in  addition  to  being 
solid  and  safe,  must  be  comfortable  and  decent. 

Tunnels  must  be  sufficiently  wide  to  permit  trains  to  pass  without  injuring  work- 
men who  might  be  in  the  tunnel. 

On  swampy  ground  macadam  roadbeds  must  be  made,  or  pontoons  supported  on 
iron  girders  or  masonry. 

Some  of  the  concessions  in  the  past  have  been  more  liberal  than  the 
terms  of  the  law  outlined  above.  The  original  Puerto  Wilches- 
Bucaramanga  contract  guaranteed  7  per  cent  per  annum  on  the  sum 
of  40,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilometer,  and  the  Pacific  Railway 
Co.  received  as  high  as  65,333  dollars  per  kilometer  of  narrow-gauge 
track  over  the  most  mountainous  divisions  of  the  road  between 
Buenaventura  and  Cali,  and  in  easier  parts  38,000  and  40,000  dol- 
lars per  kilometer  of  track  constructed— payment  being  secured  by 
50  per  cent  of  the  gross  receipts  of  the  Buenaventura  and  Tumaco 
customhouses  (amounting  to  more  than  half  a  million  dollars  a  year) 
and  being  made  every  month.  A  recent  (1919-20)  concession  for  the 
completion  of  the  Pacific  Railway  over  the  Quindio  Pass  of  the  Cen- 
tral Andes  Range  confirmed  this  old  contract  in  its  general  terms. 


SOO     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERClAl.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  Amaga  Railway,  which  is  being  built  by  Medellin  capital,  re- 
ceives 10,000  and  15,000  Colombian  dollars  per  kilometer,  according 
to  the  basic  law,  though  some  stretches  of  this  line  cost  120,000  dollars 
to  construct  and  the  average  cost  has  been  much  higher  than  the 
subsidy  allowed  by  the  Government. 

When  contracts  call  for  annual  interest  guaranties  of  7  per  cent  on 
the  basis  of  cost  of  30,000  dollars  per  kilometer  (about  50,000  dollars 
per  mile),  interest  generally  begins  as  soon  as  a  certain  number  of 
kilometers  (usually  20)  have  been  constructed  and  are  open  for  ser- 
vice. Besides  the  interest  on  the  cost,  builders  are  granted  in  owner- 
ship an  area  of  public  lands,  on  either  side  of  the  right  of  way,  not  to 
exceed  300  hectares  (about  738  acres)  per  kilometer.  The  subsidy 
bonds  and  land  titles  are  delivered  to  the  builders  in  the  amount 
corresponding  to  each  20  kilometers  (12  miles)  that  are  opened  to 
traflBc. 

The  railway  and  all  its  appm-tenances  are  exempt  from  the  pav- 
ment  of  direct  or  extraordinary  taxation,  and  the  building  materials, 
machinery,  and  equipment  do  not  pay  any  import  duties  or  road  or 
river  tonnage  tolls. 

The  building  company  may  issue  bonds  or  debentures  guaranteed 
by  the  proceeds  of  the  railway,  and  it  may  also  mortgage  the  railway 
for  the  period  of  the  concession.  The  concessionaire  may  also  trans- 
fer the  contract  or  concession  to  any  person  or  corporation  with  the 
consent  of  the  Government,  but  never  to  a  foreign  government. 
The  organization  of  the  companies  or  corporations  engaging  in  rail- 
way buUding  and  operation  in  Colombia  are  subject  to  the  Colombian 
laws. 

STATISTICS  OF  OPERATION  OF  ALL  COLOMBIAN  RAILWAYS. 

The  following  table  shows  the  length,  gauge,  movement  of  passen- 
gers and  freight,  and  operating  account  of  all  the  railways  in  Co- 
lombia for  the  year  1917,  the  most  recent  year  for  which  such  statis- 
tics are  available.  Interest  charges,  outstanding  bonds  or  deben- 
tures, etc.,  are  not  taken  into  consideration;  only  the  actual  operat- 
ing receipts  and  expenditures  are  included. 


Railways. 


Antioquia 

Amaga 

BarranquiUa . . . 

Caldasi 

Cartagena 

Cucuta* 

Qirardot 

La  Dorada 

La  Sabana 

Northern 

Pacific 

Puerto  Wilchea. 

Santa  Marta 

Southern 

Tolima 


Length. 


Kilo- 
meters. 


Miles. 


18L0 

112.5 

41.5 

25.8 

28.0 

17.4 

10.0 

6.2 

105.0 

65.2 

72.0 

44.7 

132.0 

82.0 

Ul.O 

69.0 

40.0 

24.8 

62.5 

38.8 

233.0 

144.8 

20.0 

12.4 

94.0 

68.4 

35.0 

21.7 

30.0 

18.6 

Oatige. 


Inches. 
36 
36 
42 
36 
36 

(') 
36 
36 

^•) 
(») 
36 

(«) 


(') 


Passen- 
gers 
carried. 


1,290,741 

772, 424 

191,059 

11,139 

52, 615 

112,340 

172, 761 

125, 145 

653,881 

612, 594 

202,301 

2,014 

187, 325 

172,389 

169,407 


Total 1,195.0  I    742.3    4,728,135  956,933   5,131,637  3,281,617    1,850,020     63.95 


Freight 
carried. 


Metric 

tons. 

114,279 

36, S37 

98,  792 

1,094 

46,901 

21,1.50 

77,386 

84,045 

116,499 

90,459 

37,682 

808 

166,275 

53,869 

9,857 


Operating  account. 


Gross 
revenues. 


Expenses. 


Colom-  I 
bian 
dollars.  | 
895,211  I 
15.5,229  I 
335,716  ' 

2,141  I 
307,571  ! 
221,564 
719, 524 
534,745 
329,051 
402,332 
454,081 

9,181 
503,906 
122,296 
49,090 


Colom- 
bian 
dollars. 
528,751 
96,242 
196,465 
1,302 
268,348 
172, 5.51 
434,597 
208,459 
167, 598 
139, 541 
475, 462 
18,839 
461,387 
66,620 
45,455 


Net 
revenues. 


Colom- 
bian 
dollars. 
366,460 
58,987 
139,251 
839 
39,223 
49,013 
284,927 
326,286 
161,453 
262, 791 
4  21,381 
*  9, 6.58 
132,518 
55,676 
3,635 


Oper- 
ating 
ratio. 


Per 

cevt 
59.06 
62.00 
58.52 
60.82 
87.24 
77.87 
60.40 
38.96 
50.93 
34.68 
104.71 
205.11 
77.67 
54.38 
92.59 


>  Caldas  Railway  began  operation  in  August,  1917. 
*  Cucuta  Railway  does  not  give  earnings  of  branches. 


*  Gauge  1  meter  (3.28  feet). 
«Loss. 


TRANSPORTATION.  301 

RIVER  NAVIGATION. 

'  For  an  account  of  river  navigation,  which  forms  one  of  the  most 
important  means  of  passenger  and  freight  transportation  in  Co- 
lombia, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  sections  on  the  several  commer- 
cial districts  (especially  the  discussion  of  the  Magdalena  River 
system,  p.  203)  and  also  to  the  series  of  ''Travel  notes  beginning  on 
page  393. 

PUBLIC  fflGHWAYS.1 

PRINCIPAL  ROADS— TECHNICAL  CONDITIONS  GOVERNING  CONSTRUCTION. 

The  roads  and  trails  of  Colombia  are  divided  into  three  groups — 
national,  departmental,  and  municipal.  The  national  highways  are 
8,603  kilometers  (5,346  miles)  in  length,  according  to  surveys;  they 
comprise  those  that  unite  the  capital  with  the  frontier  and  strate- 
gical points,  those  that  lead  to  regions  for  colonization,  and  those 
that  unite  the  Department  capitals  with  river  or  sea  ports.  The 
principal  ones  are  as  follows : 

The  Central  Northern  Highway  from  Bogota  to  Cucuta,  via 
Tunja,  Tequia,  Malaga,  Chinacota,  and  Pamplona,  with  171  miles 
in  service.  This  great  highway  is  constructed  as  far  as  La  Paz,  and 
the  plans  are  made  as  far  as  Capitanejo  on  the  border  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Santander,  representing  approximately  62  miles  more.  Close 
to  this  road  are  to  be  found  iron,  lime,  coal,  building  stone,  etc.  This 
highway,  when  completed,  will  connect  Bogota  with  the  Venezuelan 
frontier. 

The  highway  from  Cucuta  to  the  Magdalena,  partly  under  con- 
struction and  partly  under  survey. 

The  Southwestern  Road,  destined  to  unite  Bogota  with  the  ex- 
treme southern  part  of  the  country,  passing  through  Ibague, 
Calarca,  Tulua,  Popayan,  and  Pasto ;  this  has  some  sections  in  serv- 
ice and  others  under  construction. 

The  trail  from  Pasto  to  Puerto  Asis  hy  the  Putumayo  River,  pass- 
ing through  the  villages  of  San  Francisco  and  Mocoa,  two-thirds 
of  which  is  constructed. 

The  Northeastern  Road  from  Bogota  to  Gamarra  above  the  Mag- 
dalena River,  passing  through  Chiquinquira,  El  Socorro,  and  Buca- 
ramanga,  some  parts  of  which  are  cart  roads  that  it  is  planned  to  im- 
prove From  time  to  time. 

The  Sarare  trail  between  Pamplona  and  Tame  destined  to  unite 
the  northern  part  of  the  Department  of  Santander  with  the  plains 
of  Casanare;  part  constructea  and  part  under  survey. 

The  Eastern  Road,  destined  to  unite  Bogota  with  Calamar  on  the 
River  Unilla  (an  affluent  of  the  Vaupes  in  the  Meta  country) ,  passing 
by  Villavicencio  and  San  Martin;  tnis  road  is  in  service  to  Villavi- 
cencio  and  in  survev  from  there  on. 

The  Quibdo  trail  on  the  Atrato  in  the  Intendency  of  Choco  to 
the  town  of  Bolivar  in  the  Department  of  Antioc^uia. 

The  Guadalupe  Road  in  the  Department  of  Huila  to  a  point  on  the 
River  Orteguasa  via  Florencia;  all  in  service. 

The  Yarumal  Road  from  Yarumal  in  the  Department  of  Antioquia 
to  Monteria  in  the  Department  of  Bolivar;  projected. 

1  As  far  as  the  heading  "Recent  Road  Legislation,"  on  p.  302,  this  account  is  from  "Construction  Mate- 
rials and  Machinery  in  Colombia,"  Special  Agents  Series  No.  160,  by  W.  W.  Ewing. 


302     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  which  are  classed  as  preferential,  there 
are  many  others  of  equal  importance  covered  by  ordinance  No.  422 
of  1917. 

The  law  assigns  to  public  highways  700,000  Colombian  dollars  per 
year,  which  is  paid  by  surtax  of  5  per  cent  of  the  customs  dues.  This 
fund  is  called  the  special  road  fund.  Conservation  of  roads  is  pro- 
vided for  by  road  tolls. 

Departmental  roads  are  financed  by  road  taxes  levied  by  the  de- 
partmental governments  within  the  Departments.  The  amount  of 
these  taxes  may  be  estimated  at  50,000  Colombian  dollars  per  year 
for  each  section.  Municipal  roads  are  financed  by  the  municipalities 
from  local  taxes  and  amount  to  about  500  dollars  per  year  for  each 
municipality. 

The  technical  conditions  called  for  in  all  new  roads  are  as  follows: 
First-class  roads — ^Maximum  grade,  6  per  cent;  minimum  radius,  30 
meters  (98.4  feet);  minimum  tangent,  20  meters  (65.5  feet).  Sec- 
ond-class roads — Maximum  grade,  8  per  cent;  minimum  radius,  20 
meters  (65.6  feet).  Third-class  roads — Maximum  grade,  10  per 
cent;  minimum  radius,  15  meters  (49.2  feet). 

The  road  system  is  mostly  in  mountainous  country  of  high  relief, 
as  the  towns  are  usually  situated  on  the  plateaus  or  slopes  of  the 
Andes,  the  three  ranges  of  which  traverse  the  country  from  south 
to  north  and  at  many  points  reach  above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 

The  cost  of  highway  construction  in  the  mountains,  the  road  having 
a  base  of  8  meters  (26.24  feet)  and  wearing  surface  of  5  meters  (16.4 
feet),  with  macadam  18  centimeters  (7.09  inches)  thick,  was  calcu- 
lated in  1917  as  varying  from  5,000  to  16,000  Colombian  dollars  per 
kilometer  ($4,867  to  $15,573  United  States  currency),  equivalent  to 
$7,837  to  $25,077  per  mile.  In  1919  construction  costs  had  in- 
creased by  30  per  cent. 

Machinery  is  beginning  to  be  used  in  road  making,  with  good  re- 
sults, and  there  are  in  use  several  stone  crushers,  excavators,  and 
steam  tractors  of  English  manufacture  belonging  to  the  Government. 

The  country  is  rich  in  silicious  and  calcareous  rock. 

Labor  is  abundant  in  the  cold  country  and  scarce  in  the  hot.  There 
are  no  laws  as  to  what  constitutes  a  day's  labor,  but  the  custom  is 
nine  hours  in  the  cold  and  seven  hours  in  the  hot  country.  Laborers 
in  the  cold  country  are  strong,  energetic,  sober,  and  obedient;  in  the 
hot  country  they  are  not  so  satisfactory. 

RECENT  ROAD  LEGISLATION. 

During  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  increased  agitation  for 
good  roads  in  the  country,  but  the  actual  work  of  construction  en- 
counters many  difficulties,  such  as  the  general  lack  of  sufficient  funds, 
the  broken  nature  of  the  country,  and  the  lack  of  labor  (except  in 
the  Departments  of  Cundinamarca  and  Bo^aca,  where  there  is  an 
abundance  of  cheap  labor  and  the  country  is  more  level  and  has  a 
cool  climate). 

Law  No.  70  of  1916,  known  as  the  "General  Law  on  Roads,"  de- 
clared all  previous  laws  relative  to  road  construction  reformed  and 
changed  to  meet  modem  conditions. 

Law  No.  7a  of  1917  authorized  the  investment  ot  10,000  Colombian 
dollars  (dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  currency)  in  five  months'  time 


TRANSPORTATION. 


303 


in  the  part  of  the  Southwestern  Road  between  Ibague  and  Calarca, 
in  the  Department  of  Tolima. 

'  Law  8a  of  1917  increased  the  amount  assigned  to  the  Northwestern 
Highway  to  42,000  dollars  annually  (18,000  dollars  for  the  division 
between  Bogota  and  Socorro,  12,000  dollars  between  Socorro  and  Gil 
Bias  (San  Gil),  and  12,000  dollars  between  Piedecuesta  and  La 
Florida)  and  elevated  this  road  to  the  first  class,  as  also  that  between 
Tunja  and  the  Magdalena  River. 

Law^  No.  12  of  1917  provided  for  the  survey  and  location  of  the 
continuation  of  the  Central  Northern  Highway  (Bogota  to  Tunja) 
into  the  Department  of  Santander  as  far  as  Bucaramanga. 

Law  No.  36  of  1917  authorized  the  construction  of  a  steel  bridge 
over  the  Sumapaz  River  to  connect  Cundinamarca  with  Tolima. 

Law  No.  42  authorized  a  contract  with  the  Department  of  Norte  de 
Santander  to  continue  the  construction  of  the  Sarare-Pamplona  road. 

The  roads  and  trails  of  the  country  have  been  divided  into  first, 
second,  and  third  class  wagon  roads  and  first,  second,  and  third  class 
trails  for  mule  transport  and  travel. 

HIGHWAY  PROJECTS  OF  NATIONAL  GOVERNMENT. 

The  following  table  shows  the  annual  assignment  of  funds  for  road- 
building  provided  by  the  surtax  of  5  per  cent  on  all  imports,  amount- 
ing in  1917  to  361,755  Colombian  dollars,  of  which  only  327,899  dol- 
lars was  paid  out  by  the  Treasury  in  1917,  with  an  additional  38,388 
dollars  produced  by  road  tolls  throughout  the  Republic  for  the 
purpose  of  maintenance  and  repair: 

[Colombian  dollar =$0.9733.] 


Name  of  road. 


Central     Northern     Highway 

(Bogota  to  Tunja). 
H^hway,  Cucuta  to  Magdalena 

River. 
Southwestern  Highway  (Bogota 

to  Pasto). 
Pasto  to  Puerto  Asis  (Putu- 

mayo  River). 

Northeastern  Highway  (Bo- 
gota to  river  via  Bucara- 
manga). 

Sogamoso  to  Puerto  Gardtas 
(on  Caqueta  River). 

Eastern  Highway  (Bogota  to 
Calamar). 

Quibdo  to  Bolivar,  Antioquia. . 

Guadalupe  to  Orteguasa 

Yarumal  (Antioquia)  to  Mon- 
teria  (Bolivar). 

La  Plata  to  Call 

Tolu  to  Sincelejo 

Ei  Meta  Highway  (Bogota  to 

Cabuyaro). 
Carare  Iliver  Highway  (Tunja 

to  Puerto  Aquileo). 
Carmen  to  Zambrano'  (Bolivar) . 


Wagon  road,  first 

class. 
Wagon  road,  first 

class. 
Trail,  first  class.. . 

Trail,  second  class. 
Traa 


Trail,  first  dass. . . 

Trail,  first  class.. . 

Trail,  first  class. . . 

Trail,  second  class. 
Trail,  third  class . . 

Trail,  third  class. . 

Wagon  road,  third 

class. 
Wagon  road,  first 

class. 
Wagon  road,  third 

class. 
Wagon  road,  third 

class. 


Annual  as- 
signment. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
250,000 

50,000 

42,000 

24,000 

54,000 

12,000 

12,000 

12,000 

12,000 
16,000 

12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
12,000 
6.000 


Condition. 


171  miles  in  service.  Upkeep  and  re- 
pairs.   No  new  construction. 

7  miles  in  use — Ocana  to  Las  Animas. 
Remainder  under  survey. 

Calarca  section  under  construction. 
Survey  to  Popayan. 

Formerly  under  private  contract. 
Work  by  Government  being  organ- 
ized. 

Repairs  only,  Bogota  to  Socorro. 


Repairs  and  survey  only. 

Repairs,  Bogota  to  Villavicendo.  Sur- 
vey to  Calamar. 

Active  construction  for  mule  transport 
under  direction  of  Antioquia. 

Sur\-ey  from  Orteguasa  to  the  south. 

Survey  under  direction  of  Antioquia. 
Important  for  bringing  cattle  from 
Sinu  River  district. 

Constniction  work  between  towns  o 
Caloto  and  Taula. 

Construction,  Tolu  to  Pichelin. 

Repairs  only.  Not  used  as  wagon  road, 
except  for  a  few  miles  out  of  Bogota. 

Repairs  of  part  built  between  Tunja 
and  Arcabuco. 

Survey  only. 


304     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


Name  of  road. 


Progreso  Road  (Tunja  to  Cha- 
meza). 

Alban  to  Lower  Magdalena 


Santander  to  Cauca  River  (El 
VaUe). 

Quindlo  Trail  (Tolima),  Ibague 
to  Zarzal  via  Armenia. 

Paste  to  Barbacofis  (Narino).... 


Campoalegre  to  Caguan 

Las  Delicias  Road 

Moscopan  Road 

Southern  Highway,  Sibate  to 
Fusagasuga  (Cundinamarca). 


Class. 


TraO,  tbird class.. 

Wagon  road,  third 

cla.ss. 
Wagon  road,  third 

class. 

Trail,  third  class... 
Ws^onroad 


TraU,  second  class. 
Trail,  third  class . . 
TraU,  third  class.. 
TraU,  first  class.. . 


Annual  as- 
signment. 


Cohmbian 
dollars. 
6,000 


6,000 
6,000 

3,000 

36,000 

20,000 
3,600 

4,800 
6,000 


Condition. 


Repairs  between  Miraflores  and  Cha- 
meza  and  work  between  Tunja  and 
Ramiriqui. 

Survey  to  VUlpta.  Work  from  Alban 
to  Saisama,  using  Federal  prisoners. 

Government  engaged  in  condemnation 
of  right  of  way.  No  construction 
work  yet. 

Repairs,  under  supervision  of  Depart- 
ment of  Tolima.  Important  traU 
through  Quindio  Pass,  etc. 

53  miles  constructed,  Pasto  toward 
Barbacoas.  Remainder  under  sur- 
vey, \vith  old  trail  to  Patia  River 
and  Barbacoas.  Under  direction  of 
departmental  government. 

Work  suspended  on  account  of  lack  of 
funds. 

Under  supers-ision  of 


Repairs  only. 

Department. 
Repairs  only. 

Department. 
Construction  and  survey.    WeU-trav- 

eled  and  important  local  pack  road. 


Under  supervision  of 


All  the  above-mentioned  roads  and  trails  have  a  definite  assign- 
ment of  funds  annually  and  are  either  under  survey  (route  location, 
etc.)  or  under  construction. 

The  following  roads  and  trails  also  have  assignments  of  funds,  but 
no  survey  has  been  made  and  no  work  done  thus  far: 


Name  of  road. 


Pamplona  to  Sarare  (Norte  de 
Santander). 


Cauca  Valley  to  Istmina 

Barranquilla  to  Cartagena,  via 
Uslacuri. 


Monteria  to  Maganguc  (Bolivar). 

Western  Highway,  Mariquita 
to  Choco. 

Riohacha  to  Chiriguana  (Mag- 
dalena). 

Ttinja    to    Meta    River,    via 

Macanal. 
Ambalema  to  Manizales  (Caldas 

and  Tolima). 


Nare  to  Medellin 

Honda  to  Medellin  via  Sonson 

(Antioquia). 
Pitalito  to  Mocoa 

Las  Hermosas-Chaparral  to  Pal- 
mira (El  Valle). 
El  Paso  to  Magangue 


Class. 


TraU,  first  class. . 


Trail,  third  class. . 
Wagon  road,  third 
class. 


Trail,  third  class. 
Trail,  first  class. . 
TraU,  third  class. 

TraU,  third  class. 
TraU,  third  class. 

TraU,  tbird  class . 
Trail,  third  class. 
TraU,  third  class. 
Trail,  third  class. 
TraU,  third  class. 


Annual  as- 
signment. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
24,000 


12,000 
12,000 


12,000 
6,000 
12,000 

12,000 
6,000 

3,000 
4,000 
10,000 


Condition. 


6,000 


Contracted  with  Department  of  Norte 
de  Santander.  No  funds  allocated 
yet. 

No  survey  or  work  yet. 

15  kUometers  from  BarranquUla  to 
Qalapa  and  from  Cartagena  to  Arjona 
in  Bolivar  are  in  U5e  by  automobiles. 
Remainder  is  not  even  good  trail. 

Survey  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
funds. 

Survev  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
fimds. 

Survey  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
funds.  See  old  pack  traU  via  Valle 
de  Upar,  Soldado,  etc. 

Siu^ey  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
funds. 

Repairs  only.  Good  pack  road.  ▼Im- 
portant highway  in  local  trade. 
Crosses  the  Ruiz  pdramo  south  of  the 
Mariquita-Manizales  trail. 

Repairs  only,  by  Department  of  Antio- 
quia. 

Repairs  only.  Old  trail  known  as  the 
"Sonson  Road."    Good  pack  traU. 

No  survey  or  work,  on  account  of  lack 
of  funds. 

Survey  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
funds. 

Survev  and  work  held  up  by  lack  of 
funds. 


TRANSPORTATION. 


305 


The  following  roads  and  trails  have  been  projected  and  planned, 
but  they  have  no  assignment  of  funds,  and  surveys  or  locations  have 
not  as  yet  been  made: 


Name  of  road. 

Medellin  to  Turbo  ( Antioquia) 
Soata  to  Cocuy  (Boyaca) 

Jaraguay  to  Turbo 

Tucura  to  Riosucio  (Choco  lu- 

tendency). 
Atrato  River  to  Pacific  (Te- 

bada  to  Cupica). 

Duitama  to  Socorro 

Eastern  Highway  of  Cundina- 

marca. 


Class. 


Trail,  third  class. 
Wagon  road,  third 

class. 
Trail,  third  class. 
Trail,  third  class. 

Trail,  third  class. 

Trail,  third  class. 
Wagon  road,  third 
class. 


Name  of  road. 


Southern  Highway,  Las  Papas 
to  Santa  Rosa  (south  from 
Bogota). 

Colombia  to  San  Martin  (De- 
partment of  Huila). 

Micay  Road 

Apia  to  San  Juan  River 

Simiti  to  Magdalena  River 

Chiquinquira  to  Magdalena 
River. 


Class. 


TraU,  first  class. 


TraU,  second  class. 

Trail,  second  class. 
Trail,  third  class. 
Trail,  third  class. 
TraU,  first  class. 


WORK  BY  DEPARTMENTAL  GOVERNMENTS. 

The  Department  of  Antioquia  is  the  most  advanced  in  road  and 
trail  building.  Fifty  steel  bridges  for  highways  have  been  erected, 
and  six  more  are  under  construction,  at  a  total  cost  of  220,938  Colom- 
bian dollars.  The  entire  Department  of  Antioquia  is  very  mountain- 
ous, but  the  mule  trails  are  very  good  and  can  be  traveled  with  ease 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

The  Department  of  Bolivar  lias  erected  14  new  steel  bridges  on 
highways  over  small  streams. 

The  Department  of  Caldas,  following  the  example  of  Antioquia,  has 
been  very  active  in  trail  construction  and  has  completed  the  following 
pack  trails : 

Kilometers.    Miles. 

Irra  trail,  Manizales  to  Riosucio 50  31 

Manizales  to  Corregimiento  de  Brazil  (Tolima) 30  19 

Armaviejo  trail,  Pacora  to  Rio  Arma  (Antioquia) 20  12 

La  Ilermosa  trail ;  Santa  Rosa  de  Cabal  t )  Pereira 13  8 

Santuario  to  La  \'irginia 30  19 

Herveo  trail,  Manizales  to  Marulanda 25  16 

Marulanda  to  Pensilvania 30  19 

Anserma  to  Quinchia 15  9 

Los  Medios  trail,  Belen  to  San  Joaquin 15  9 

Belen  to  San  Juan  de  Antioquia 60  37 

Other  small  branches  have  been  built  in  Caldas  to  many  small 
towns;  they  total  82  kilometers  (51  miles)  in  length,  all  bein^  excel- 
lent pack-mule  trails,  2  meters  (6.5  feet)  wide  and  paved  with  stone 
in  the  bad  places  where  mud  collected  in  the  rainy  seasons.  Seven 
large  steel  oridges  have  also  been  put  in  place — two  of  them  40 
meters.  (131.2  feet)  in  length  between  abutments.  There  are  also  two 
large  steel  bridges— one,  115  meters  (377.2  feet)  in  length,  over  the 
Cauca  River  on  the  Manizales-Riosucio  trail,  and  another,  of  120 
meters  (393.6  feet)  over  the  Arauca  River.  The  total  trail  length  for 
this  Department,  which  is  entirely  mountainous,  is  1,500  kilometers, 
or  931  miles.  The  trails  are  wide  and  of  easy  grade,  allowing  heavily 
loaded  pack  animals  to  pass  in  the  most  narrow  places. 

The  Department  of  El  Valle  has  recently  erected  5  steel  bridges, 
43  of  brick  and  mortar,  4  arch  bridges,  and  7  new  wooden  bridges, 
with  1  suspension  bridge.  The  important  new  roads  and  trails  arc: 
The  Southern  Wagon  Road,  from  Call  to  Guachinte  (toward  Popayan)^ 

37558°— 21 20 


306     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

to  be  50  kilometers  (31  miles)  in  length,  of  which  12  kilometers  (7 
miles)  are  now  constructed;  the  Western  Highway,  from  Cali  to  La 
Torre,  to  be  150  kilometers  (93  miles)  in  length,  of  which  41  kilo- 
meters (25  miles)  are  now  constructed;  the  Central  Highway,  from 
Cali  to  Cartago,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Cauca  River,  to  be  200 
kilometers  (124  miles)  in  length,  of  which  58  kilometers  (36  miles) 
are  now  constructed,  passing  through  Palmira,  Buga,  Buga  la  Grande, 
etc.  (over  which  there  is  automobile  stage  service),  and  theSevilla- 
Valle  trail  of  35  kilometers  (22  miles)  now  under  construction. 

The  Department  of  Cauca  (capital,  Popayan)  has  erected  recently 
9  small  steel  bridges  over  highways  (trails)  and  has  carried  out 
important  repairs  on  the  steel  bridges  over  the  Guachicono,  Aganche, 
and  Palo  Rivers,  on  the  wooden  bridge  over  the  Palace  River  near 
the  town  of  Polindara  and  another  in  the  district  of  Corinto  near  La 
Maria,  and  has  also  done  some  canalization  work  in  the  River  La 
■Paila.     Fifteen  other  small  bridges  of  brick  have  been  built  recently. 

The  Department  of  Tolima  has  erected  recently  two  new  steel 
bridges  over  the  Coello  River  between  Espinal  and  Coello,  and 
anotlier  over  the  Saldana  River  between  Purificacion  and  Guamo. 
Seven  small  wooden  bridges  have  also  been  newlv  erected,  and  a 
steel  ferry  has  been  placed  at  Natagaima  at  the  fora  over  the  Magda- 
lena  River  to  Girardot. 

The  Department  of  Huila  has  constructed  only  two  new  bridges — 
one  at  Garzon  over  the  stream  of  that  name  and  another  over  the 
Venado  River  where  the  trail  for  the  town  of  Colombia  passes  Baraya. 
There  are  three  bridges  of  importance  over  the  Magdalena  (which  is 
narrow  and  swift  in  its  upper  reaches,  in  Huila)  — one  at  Maito,  another 
at  Guayabal,  and  a  third  at  Balseadoc-ro.  The  Department  has 
managed  to  maintain  existing  roads  (trails),  but  has  done  no  new 
trail  construction  work  on  account  of  lack  of  sufficient  funds  for  this 
purpose. 

The  Department  of  Narino  is  exerting  every  effort  for  the  com- 
pletion of  the  very  important  wagon  road  from  Pasto  to  Barbacoas, 
m  order  to  secure  an  outlfet  to  the  Pacific  port  of  Tumaco. 

The  Department  of  Magdalena  (capital,  Santa  Marta)  has  erected 
four  new  steel  bridges — one  at  the  River  Zurra  in  the  Tenerife  district, 
one  over  the  Rio  Remolino  (slough) ,  another  at  Las  Gallinas  (slough) 
on  the  La  Gloria-Simana  trail,  and  another  over  the  slough  called 
Ciego  near  Concordia.  Considerable  dredging  work  has  been  done 
at  the  market  place  of  Genaga,  where  the  steamers  dock  from 
Barranquilla. 

Road  building  in  the  Department  of  Atlantico  (capital,  Barran- 

Suilla)  has  been  confined  to  the  prolongation  of  the  Barranquilla- 
artagena  Highway,  on  which  an  additional  26,000  dollars  has  been 
spent,  chiefly  in  small  brick  culverts  and  new  work  towjard  Barona. 
The  Eastern  Highway  from  Barranquilla  to  Palmar  de  Varela,  passing 
through  Sabanalarga,  is  now  in  service  as  far  as  Soledad  (abput  18 
miles).  The  Barranquilla-Cartagena  wagon  road  is  in  service  as  far 
as  Galapa,  a  distance  of  15  kilometers  (9  miles). 

The  Department  of  Santander  has  completed  the  construction  of  2 
kilometers  (1.2  miles)  of  the  wagon  road  between  San  Gil  and  Socorro 
on  the  Northwestern  Highwaj^;  7  kilometers  (4.3  miles)  of  the  wagon 
road  between  Velez  and  tne  bridge  site  on  the  Liberitas  River,  known 
as  the  Carare  River  Road;  and  64  kilometers  (40  miles)  of  trail  have 


TRANSPORTATION.  307 

been  completed  between  Puerto  Wilches  and  Puerto  Santos  on  the 
Lcbrija  River.  Several  small  wooden  bridges  have  been  constructed 
and  all  old  trails  kept  in  fair  repair. 

Santander  del  Norte  has  confined  road  building  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  Cucuta-Pamplona  road  via  Raizon  and  repairs  to  the  Salazar- 
Arboledas  trail,  the  La  Arenosa-Zulia  River  trail,  the  trail  between 
El  Carmen  and  the  Magdalena  River  via  Portachuelo,  and  the  trail 
from  San  Pedro  to  La  Cruz. 

NATIONAL  REVENUE  FOR  ROADS. 

In  1918  national  revenue  for  roads  amounted  to  58,417  Colombian 
dollars  from  tolls,  of  which  collection  expenses  took  about  8,000 
dollars.  This  sum  is  spent  for  the  repair  and  maintenance  of  the 
existing  roads.  The  product  of  the  5  per  cent  surtax  for  roads  on 
all  imports  amounted  in  1918  to  only  233,638  dollars,  against  361,755 
dollars  in  1917.  The  budgets  of  the  Departments  for  1919-20 
amounted  to  a  total  of  10,479,891  dollars,  their  principal  revenue 
being  derived  from  the  liquor,  tobacco,  and  slaughter  taxes.  Of  this 
sum  it  was  estimated  that  at  least  1,500,000  dollars  would  be  spent 
for  new  road  building  in  the  period  from  June  30,  1919,  to  July  1, 
1920,  the  largest  road  appropriations  being  for  Antioquia,  Caldas, 
and  El  Valle,  in  the  order  named.  (See  "Departmental  finances" 
in  the  reports  on  the  several  commercial  districts,  beginning  on  p.  185.) 

MARKET  FOR  ROAD-BUILDING  MACHINERY. 

It  may  be  stated  that  there  is  a  fair  market  for  road-building 
machinery  in  Colombia,  but  what  is  most  lacking  is  a  practical 
knowledge  of  actual  construction  work  and  of  the  best  methods  of 
using  local  materials,  which  are  of  good  quality  and  plentiful  in  most 
cases.  Roads  for  wheel  traffic  are  badly  needed  throughout  the 
Atlantic  littoral,  but,  unfortunately,  the  tnree  Departments,  Magda- 
lena, Atlantico,  and  Bolivar,  have  a  small  and  poor  population  and 
lack  sufficient  revenue  to  undertake  much  construction  work  in  a  large 
way.  The  introduction  and  demonstration  of  machinerv  would  be 
easy  in  this  district  during  the  dry  season  of  the  year.  The  importa- 
tion of  heavy  machinery  into  Antioquia  would  be  costly  on  account 
of  the  distance  from  the  seaboard  and  the  high  freight  rates,  though 
Bogota  may  be  said  to  be  a  good  market,  and  a  considerable  number 
of  steam  rollers  are  now  in  use  on  the  Great  Northern  Highway. 
Cali  offers  a  good  market  and  can  be  easily  reached  by  water  from 
Panama.  In  this  region  (the  Cauca  Valley)  labor  is  scarce  and  ineffi- 
cient, and  the  departmental  officials  are  interested  in  road-building 
equipment. 

In  all  parts  of  the  country  oxen  would  have  to  be  used  on  scrapers, 

Elows,  graders,  etc.,  as  the  native  mules  are  too  small  and  light  for 
eavy  draft  work;  or  else  gas  tractors  would  have  to  be  used. 
At  present  it  is  customary  to  use  the  round  washed  gravel  of  the 
stream  beds  for  surfacing,  but  this  has  proved  unsatisfactorv,  and  there 
is  a  market  for  rock  crushers  that  can  be  made  portable,  shifting  with 
the  progress  of  the  work. 

In  view  of  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  country  and  the  increased 
revenues  of  the  various  departmental  governments  which  are  most 
interested  in  road  building,  it  is  thought  that  the  sending  of  a  repre- 
sentative to  'the  country  for  a  few  months  to  study  conditions  and 


308     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

cooperate  with  the  engineers  and  officials  would  be  productive  of 
some  very  good  business  in  road  machinery.  Such  a  representative 
would  necessarily  have  to  speak  Spanish  and  be  practically  familiar 
with  road  making  under  all  sorts  of  conditions,  the  company  being 
prepared  to  lend  his  services  to  the  various  governments  for  a  certain 
period  after  the  delivery  of  the  machinery,  m  order  to  assure  correct 
operation  and  results. 

MARKET  FOR  MOTOR  VEHICLES. 

The  present  rapid  growth  of  automobile  sales  in  Colombia  indi- 
cates a  recognition  of  the  motor  car  as  an  important  factor  in  over- 
coming the  transportation  difficulties  which  have  long  retarded  that 
country's  development.  With  an  area  of  440,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  about  6,000,000,  Colombia  has  only  740  miles  of  rail- 
way, and  must  depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  its  rivers  and  its 
highways  for  the  transportation  of  native  products  from  the  interior 
to  the  seaports  and  for  the  distribution  of  imported  merchandise. 

The  Magdalena  River  has  been  called  Colombia's  great  natural 
highway,  but,  as  already  mentioned,  sections  of  this  river  are  not 
navigable  during  the  period  of  low  water,  and  other  sections  must 
always  be  avoided  because  of  dangerous  rapids.  Colombia  has 
5,000  miles  of  national  roads,  but  only  a  comparatively  small  part  of 
this  mileage  can  be  used  for  motor  traffic.  However,  in  trie  dry 
season  level  stretches  of  dirt  roads,  covering  only  a  few  miles,  are 
utilized  by  automobile  enthusiasts,  and,  as  indicated  in  the  preced- 
ing pages,  plans  for  new  road  construction  and  street  paving  are 
being  put  into  execution  in  many  districts.  The  pressing  need  of 
more  transportation  facilities  brings  the  automobile  into  almost 
inaccessible  places,  where  cars  must  be  brought  in  knocked-down 
condition  on  the  backs  of  mules.  Once  introduced,  these  cars  lead 
to  improvements  in  the  pack  trails  and  wagon  roads,  and  so  find 
a  continually  widening  field  of  operation. 

An  indication  of  the  growing  popularity  of  the  American  auto- 
mobile in  Colombia  and  of  the  increasing  prosperity  of  the  Colom- 
bian people  appears  in  the  following  table  of  the  exports  of  motor 
vehicles  from  the  United  States  to  Colombia  from  the  beginning 
of  the  fiscal  year  1913  to  the  end  of  April,  1920,  not  including  the 
six  months  between  the  close  of  the  1918  fiscal  year  (June  30)  to  the 
first  of  the  1919  calendar  year,  when  the  exports  included  30  pas- 
senger cars  and  2  motor  trucks.  Of  the  1,333  motor  cars  and  trucks 
shipped  in  this  period,  1913-1920,  25  per  cent  were  exported  in  the 
first  four  months  of  1920.     The  table  follows: 


Periods. 

Commercial 
cars. 

Passenger  cars. 

Parts. 

Tires. 

Motor  cycles. 

Total 

Num- 
ber. 

Value. 

Num- 
ber. 

Value. 

Value. 

Value. 

Num- 
ber. 

Value. 

value. 

Fiscal  year: 
1913     . 

3 

•6,112 

110 
79 
39 
91 
173 
164 
253 
302 

$113,334 

69,620 

34,  956 

58,525 

118,937 

121,  422 

298,383 

374,  732 

$18, 676 
19,  970 
9,  695 
18,967 
27,  777 
40,717 
77,  159 
53,044 

$16, 211 
18,925 
15,  239 
28,617 
39,298 
54,648 

124,238 
51, 678 

4 
9 
11 
12 
11 
13 
8 
18- 

$900 
2,066 
2,359 
2,607 
2,128 
2,472 
2,067 
5,815 

$155,233 

110,581 

1914 

1915 

1 
4 

2 

3 

38 

39 

1,237 
1,236 
4,998 
7,  100 
39,  341 
61,440 

63,486 

1916 

109, 952 

1917 

193,  138 

1918 

226,359 

Calendar  year  1919 

JaQ.-Apr.,  1920 

541,188 
546,609 

TRANSPORTATION.  309 

The  exports  of  motor  trucks  have  increased  more  than  any  other 
item  in  the  motor  class,  indicating  the  growing  use  of  this  vehicle  for 
highway  transportation.  In  addition  to  the  39  trucks  shipped  in  the 
first  four  months  of  1920,  15  mo  tor- truck  chassis  were  exported  to 
Colombia  in  the  same  period,  pointing  to  the  use  of  locally  produced 
bodies.  The  value  of  the  motor  trucks  increased  52  per  cent  tnat  year, 
the  1919  exports  having  averaged  $1,035  and  the  1920  shipments 
$1,575  each.  Passenger  cars  increased  in  average  value  from  $1,179 
in  1919  to  $1,240  in  1920,  and  motor  cycles  from  $258  to  $323. 

The  use  of  motor  trucks  for  moving  freight  has  only  recently  been 
adopted  to  an  important  extent,  most  of  the  hauling  having  been  done 
in  two-wheel  burro  carts  or  on  the  backs  of  mules.  However,  these 
primitive  methods  prove  expensive,  and  they  are  always  slow  and 
particularly  difficult  when  the  freight  consists  of  heavy  or  bulky  ar- 
ticles. The  few  importers  who  now  use  trucks  to  bring  their  goods 
from  stations  and  wharves  to  their  warehouses  find  this  modem 
means  more  economical  as  well  as  more  satisfactory  in  other  ways. 
In  view  of  the  growing  attention  given  to  road  improvement,  the 
market  for  trucks  for  long-distance  hauling  to  supplant  the  mule 
and  cart  is  promising.  The  use  of  trailers  would  be  difficult  in  the 
narrow  city  streets  with  their  sharp  turns,  but  trailers  could  be  used 
to  great  advantage  for  hauling  cotton  and  other  produce  from  the 
country.  At  present  motor  trucks  cost  too  much  for  the  average 
trader  or  farmer,  since  even  the  cheapest  cars  are  sold  in  Colombia  at 
twice  their  cost  in  the  United  States,  because  of  the  expense  of  trans- 
portation, customs  duties,  etc. 

The  Department  of  Bolivar,  according  to  a  report  of  the  American 
vice  consul  at  Cartagena,  lends  itself  readily  to  the  use  of  automobiles 
and  tractors,  and  road-building  materials  are  easily  accessible.  To- 
ward the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena  River  the  land  is  broken  by  low 
hills,  running  south  as  far  as  Calamar.  To  the  south  of  Cartagena  and 
extending  to  the  valleys  of  the  Sari  Jorge  and  the  Cauca  the  land  is 
one  great  plain,  with  only  a  few  undulations.  This  country  is  heavily 
wooded,  and  it  must  be  cleared  by  natives  who  cut  out  the  vines  and 
underbrush,  felling  and  burning  the  large  hardwood  trees.  Stumps 
and  half-burned  logs  soon  disappear  under  the  action  of  the  heavy 
rains  and  the  intense  heat.  A  few  tractors  have  been  introduced  to 
work  this  rich  land,  and  the  plans  for  -more  extensive  rice  and  sugar 
production  make  this  a  promising  field  for  motor  cars  and  machinery. 

Cartagena  offers  opportunities  for  greatly  increased  sales  of  auto- 
mobiles. The  lack  of  street  railways  has  led  to  the  use  of  passenger 
trucks  and  private  cars  for  transportation  from  the  city  proper  to  the 
suburbs,  14  motor  busses  doing  a  capacity  business  in  this  line.  About 
36  miles  of  the  road  between  Cartagena  and  Barranquilla  are  now 
passable  for  automobiles. 

The  largest  market  for  motor  cars  is  Bogota,  the  registration  in 
that  city  in  1919  having  reached  237.  Barranquilla  was  second 
with  150  cars,  Cartagena  third,  Cali  fourth,  and  Medellin  fifth.  The 
vicinity  of  Cali  may  be  considered  the  most  active  market  for  motor 
cars  and  trucks,  on  account  of  the  enlarging  stage  service  in  that 
section.  Last  year  56  cars  were  operated  as  stages,  most  of  these 
cars  being  of  the  medium  or  low-priced  type.  Even  in  the  moun- 
tainous region  at  Pasto  the  motor  car  is  in  use  on  the  highway  run- 


310     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

nine  north  from  Pasto  toward  Barbacoas,  which  is  to  extend  later 
to  me  seaport  of  Tumaco. 

Motor  cycles  have  not  been  popular  in  Colombia  because  of  the 
poor  streets  and  roads,  but  there  has  been  a  considerable  increase  in 
their  use  recently,  following  road  improvements.  During  the  rainy 
season  most  roads  are  impassable  for  motor  cycles,  and  after  rains  the 
roads  become  caked  ana  rutted  and  even  more  difficult  for  motor 
cycles  than  for  four-wheeled  vehicles. 

The  customs  duties  on  motor  cars  and  trucks  imported  into  Co- 
lombia amount  to  about  S0.49  (American  gold)  per  100  pounds,  gross 
weight,  including  all  surtaxes.  On  automobde  parts  the  duties 
amount  to  $0.97,  on  tires  to  $0.97,  and  on  motor  cycles  to  $2.43  per 
100  pounds.  All  costs  of  shipping,  entry,  etc.,  from  the  factory  in  the 
United  States  to  the  salesroom  in  Colombia  may  be  estimated,  for  a 
car  of  average  size,  at  about  $300. 

Local  Colombian  firms  act  as  agents  for  American  automobile 
manufacturers,  and  they  usually  sell  cars  on  time  payments,  re- 
quiring $500  cash  and  from  $50  to  $100  a  month  on  cars  selling  at 
$1,500  to  $1,800.  At  the  present  time  all  the  automobiles  in  use  in 
Colombia  ure  of  American  make,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  French 
and  Italian  cars  imported  before  the  war. 

The  American  consul  at  Cartagena  reports  that  cars  from  the 
United  States  received  at  that  port  have  usually  arrived  in  satis- 
factory condition.  He  adds  that  knocked-down  cars,  hke  heavy 
parts  of  machinerv,  should  be  encased  in  materials  of  substantial 
quality  and  should  be  well  braced,  cross  braces  and  blocking  being 
recommended  to  prevent  any  movement  of  parts  in  the  cases.  For 
cast-iron  parts  and  delicate  machine  pieces,  sectional  braces  should 
be  used  in  packing.  All  bolts  should  be  countersunk.  No  packages 
should  weigh  more  than  500  pounds,  for  the  facilities  for  unloadmg 
heavy^  packages  from  the  vessel  and  for  transporting  them  into  the 
interior  are  inadequate. 

While  gasoline  has  been  high  in  Colombia,  the  recent  development 
of  local  oil  fields  and  the  establishment  of  a  refinery  (see  p.  129)  is 
expected  to  provide  an  adequate  supply  of  gasoline  at  prices  no 
higher  than  those  prevailing  in  the  IJnited  States.  This  local  fuel 
will  undoubtedly  prove  a  great  advantage  to  the  automobile  trade  in 
Colombia. 


FOREIGN  TRADE. 

INTRODUCTORY  REVIEW. 

In  spite  of  many  difficulties,  not  the  least  of  which  is  the  broken 
nature  of  the  topography,  making  conmiunication  extremely  difficult, 
the  commerce  ot  Colombia  has  shown  a  steady  growth  ever  since  the 
country's  liberation  from  Spanish  rule.  The  population  has  steadily 
increased  from  1,686,000  in  1834  to  5,472,000  in  1912,  and  there  has 
been  a  satisfactory  increase  in  exports  and  imports  per  capita. 

During  the  period  from  1834  to  1854,  with  an  average  population  of 
2,000,000  people,  exports  averaiged  only  $1.30  per  capita  and  imports 
$2.05  per  capita,  showing  an  unfavorable  balance  of  trade  and  a  very 
low  production.  Between  1854  and  1868,  with  an  average  population 
of  about  2,250,000  people,  exports  averaged  $4  per  capita  and  imports 
$3.25  per  capita,  showing  an  increase  of  exports  over  imports  and 
giving  the  country  the  first  favorable  balance  of  trade.  Between 
1869  and  1904,  with  a  population  of  possibly  3,000,000  people,  exports 
had  increased  to  $5.43  per  capita  and  imports  to  $3.21.  Since  then 
expansion  has  been  mucn  more  rapid,  as,  during  the  period  from  1905 
to  1918,  with  the  population  around  5,500,000,  exports  increased  to 
$6.90  per  capita  and  imports  to  $4  per  capita.     It  is  during  this  last 

Eefiod  that  commerce  has  experienced  its  greatest  expansion,  imports 
aving  doubled  in  value  ana  exports  tripled  in  value,  as  is  shown  in 
the  table  on  page  313. 

Even  during  the  war  years  (1914-1918)  Colombia  held  its  own  very 
well  and  did  not  suffer  nearly  so  much  as  some  of  its  Latin  American 
neighbors,  though  a  serious  effect  was  felt  after  the  entrance  of  the 
United  States  into  the  conffict  in  1917.  In  1905  exports  and  imports 
were  about  equal  in  value,  but  by  1918  exports  had  increased  over 
imports  to  the  extent  of  14,694,555  Colombian  dollars — exports  total- 
ing 37,728,559  dollars  and  imports  22,034,004  dollars— giving  the 
country  the  largest  trade  balance  in  its  commercial  history.  (Colom- 
bian dollar  =$0.9733.) 

Exports  for  1919  (definite  figures  for  which  are  not  yet  available) 
were  expected  to  total,  in  value,  about  60,000,000  Colombian  dollars, 
this  unprecedented  amount  being  caused  by  the  heavy  coffee  crop; 
1,300,000  sacks  of  coffee  were  shipped,  instead  of  the  former  high 
average  of  900,000,  and  at  prices  about  double  the  previous  high 
averages.  Hides  also  sweUed  this  grand  total  of  exports,  a  rather 
large  quantity  having  been  held  over  during  1917  and  1918,  on 
account  of  the  difficulties  of  shipment,  and  sold  in  1919  at  prices 
averaging  about  53  cents  per  pound,  whereas  28  cents  had  been  a 
previous  nigh  price. 

It  is  also  estimated  that  official  figures  for  1919  will  show  the  im- 
ports to  have  been  very  great  in  value  (though  not  much  greater  in 
tonnage) ,  almost  wiping  out  the  previous  favorable  trade  balance  of 
Colfimbia.  All  these  imports  were  chiefly  purchased  in  the  United 
States  during  a  period  oi  high  prices  for  all  classes  of  merchandise, 
prices  being  rather  higher  even  than  during  the  war. 

311 


312      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL,  AND  INDUSTRIAI^   HANDBOOK. 

The  great  advantages  of  the  entire  situation  brought  about  by  the  i 
heavy  crop  and  high  prices  of  coffee  in  1919  lay  in  the  influx  of  gold 
into  Colombia  from  the  United  States;  in  the  retention  in  the 
country  of  its  own  production  of  gold,  formerly  exported;  in  the 
consequent  increase  of  the  circulating  medium  to  about  $40,000,000 
(incluaing  all  kinds  of  currency) ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  in  stimulat- 
ing American  interest  in  the  country,  thereby  bringing  about  a 
better  knowledge  of  Colombia  and  its  natural  resources,  which  is 
resulting  in  a  better  understanding,  more  liberal  credits,  the  invest- 
ment of  capital,  and  loans  for  public-utility  projects  long  needed. 
Another  important  factor  is  the  interest  being  taken  by  American 
oil  companies  in  Colombian  petroleum  development,  which  will  mean 
a  source  of  new  wealth  for  the  country  and  will  lead  to  investment  in 
other  enterprises  worthy  of  development. 

CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  ESTABLISHMENT  OF  CLOSER  RELATIONS 
WITH  UNITED  STATES. 

As  a  result  of  the  War,  Latin  America  is  coming  more  and  more  to 
believe  that  future  development  is  dependent  upon  help  from  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain,  and  the  business  element  of  Colom- 
bia is  looking  to  the  United  States  for  capital  and  assistance  in  many 
lines.  Generally  speaking,  however,  it  would  appear  that,  before 
closer  relations  can  be  brought  about,  certain  modifications  may  be 
necessary  in  respect  to  legislation  and  administrative  procedure 
in  Colombia  in  order  to  bring  about  a  greater  similarity  of  methods 
in  the  two  countries,  forming  a  basis  for  mutual  protection  and  con- 
fidence and,  at  the  same  time,  stimulating  business  in  Colombia  it- 
self. 

In  this  connection,  the  example  of  the  existing  customs  laws  may 
be  cited;  these  are  regarded  by  many  persons  as  antiquated  and  as 
having  the  far-reaching  effect  of  penalizing  business  and  commerce. 
It  is  iclt  by  students  of  the  question  that  some  adequate  means  of 
internal  taxation  should  be  worked  out  so  that  import  duties  could 
be  placed  on  an  ad  valorem  basis  and  the  National  Government 
escape  from  its  dependence  upon  import  duties,  which  now  constitute 
about  80  per  cent  of  the  national  revenue.  One  hears  suggestions, 
also,  that  measures  should  be  passed  to  eliminate  the  present  system 
of  release  of  goods  from  customhouse  to  the  holder  of  the  consular 
invoice  irrespective  of  the  bill  of  lading,  and  thereby  make  "  to  order' ' 
shipments  to  Colombia  possible. 

Also,  under  the  present  system,  the  possession  of  the  interior 
shipping  documents  does  not  necessarily  give  the  foreign  buyer  or 
lender  complete  control  of  goods  of  export  from  Colombia  unless 
he  also  has  the  ocean  bill  of  lading. 

Operating  as  another  deterrent  to  trade  are  the  existing  laws 
(Code  Napoleon)  covering  mortgages  and  chattel  mortgages,  which 
do  not  give  the  lender  full  protection  unless  he  is  in  actual  possession 
of  the  security. 

A  wider  knowledge  of  foreign  banking  systems  and  requirements 
on  the  part  of  Colombians  would  also  help  toward  a  closer  m*;.*ual 
understanding  and  agreement. 


FOREIGN   TRADE. 
GROWTH  OF  FOREIGN  TRADE. 


313 


The  slow  but  steady  growth  of  Colombia's  foreign  trade  is  shown 
in  the  following  table: 

[Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Year. 

Exports. 

Imports. 

Year. 

Exports. 

Impwts. 

1832 

Colombian 

dollars. 

1,236,850 

2,386,967 

3,393,251 

6,772,017 

8,247,817 

15,836,943 

14,171,241 

15,088,316 

12,314,916 

14,998,744 

Colombian 
dollars. 
1,454,142 

3,423,288 
4, 168, 468 
7,897,206 
5, 759, 018 
12, 121, 480 
6,879,531 
11,523,222 
12,281,720 
13,513,891 

1909 .   .. 

Colombian 
dollars. 
16,040,198 
17,786,806 
22, 375, 899 
32,221,746 
34,315,251 
32,632,884 
31,579,131 
36,006,821 
36, 739, 881 
37,728,559 

Colombian 
dollars. 
12,117,927 

1842 

1910 

17,385,039 
18, 108, 863 

1855.. 

1911 

1865 

1912 

23,964,623 

1870 

1913 

28, 535, 779 

1880 

1914 

20, 979, 228 

1885 

1915 

17,840,619 
29,660,206 

1895 

1916 

1905 

1917 

24, 758, 844 
22, 034, 004 

1908 

1918 

Note. — For  a  complete  table,  year  by  year,  of  Colombia's  foreign  trade  since  1834,  see  "Informe  del 
Ministro  de  Hacienda' '  for  1918,  pp.  clxxxiv  and  clxxxv. 

STATISTICS  OF  COMMERCE  IN  A  NORMAL  YEAR. 

In  a  modern  prewar  year,    1911,   the  principal  exports  were  as 
follows : 


Articles. 

KUos. 

Value.      ' 

Articles. 

Kilos. 

Value. 

Coffee 

37,899,968 

10,574 

4, 449, 475 

576,760 

10,989,605 

Colombian 
dollars. 
9,475,448 
3,751,632 
1,779,790 
900,886 
739,419 

Bananas 

109,785,748 

3,911,012 

93,874 

2,554 

Colombian 
dollars. 
2,172,000 
332, 935 

Gold 

Tobacco 

Hides 

Hats 

1,088  821 

Rubber 

Platinum  i 

345,896 

Ivory  nuts 

1  Greatly  increased  in  value  since  1911. 

Total  exports  for  1911  amounted  to  22,375,900  Colombian  dollars, 
of  which  the  United  States  received  goods  to  the  value  of  12,248,995 
dollars.  Great  Britain  4,596,138  dollars,  Germany  1,910,354  dollars, 
Spain  119,655  dollars,  France  769,189  dollars,  Manama  42,977  dol- 
lars, and  all  other  countries  2,688,591  dollars. 

Imports  amounted  to  18,108,863  Colombian  dollars,  as  follows: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Great  Britain 5,  838,  790 

United  States 5, 404, 976 

Germany 3,  242,  635 

France 1,  718,  748 

Spain 397,  733 

Panama 31,  791 

Other  countries 1,  474, 191 

Total 18, 108,  864 

Analysis  of  the  export  trade  before  the  war  shows  that  more  than 

two-thirds  of  the  coffee  went  to  the  United  States,  the  remainder 

oing  to  England,  Germany,  and  France,  with  England  taking  the 

argest  share.     Gold,  silver,  and  platinum  went  to  the  United  States 

to  the  extent  of  nearly  50  per  cent,  with  Great  Britain  next  and 


314     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

France  third.  Hides  and  skins  went  principally  to  the  United 
States,  as  did  bananas,  hats,  rubber,  cacao,  woods,  and  medicinal 
plants  and  herbs.  Germany  ranked  first  as  a  market  for  Colombian 
tanning  materials,  tobacco,  and  vegetable  ivory. 

The  proportions  of  the  imports  to  Colombia  from  foreign  nations 
may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  statements  of  the  most  important 
items,  taken  from  the  returns  for  1911,  as  a  normal  prewar  year. 

The  principal  item  of  import  into  Colombia  is  textiles,  of  which  a 
total  of  8,025,856  Colombian  dollars'  worth  was  imported  during 
1911,  coming  from  the  various  countries  as  follows: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

Great  Britain 4,  202,  734 

Germany 1, 194, 529 

United  States 1, 089,  945 

France 897,  993 

Spain 98,  643 

Panama 6,  940 

Other  countries 535, 072 

Foodstuffs  amounted  to  2,191,009  dollars,  from  these  countries  <  ! 
origin : 

Colombian 
dollars. 

United  States 1,078, '387 

Germany 540, 132 

Great  Birtain 181,  324 

France 62,  221 

Spain 46,  029 

Panama 4, 418 

Other  countries 277,  598 

The  next  important  item  was  metals,  amounting  to  2,004,081 
dollars,  furnished  by  the  several  nations  as  follows: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

United  States 679,  628 

Great  Britain 652,  501 

Germany 487,204 

France 92,  039 

Spain 5,793 

Other  countries 87,  916 

The  next  highest  item  was  locomotives  and  railway  equipment,  of 
which  726,048  dollars  worth  was  imported  in  1911: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

United  States 441, 113 

Great  Britain 151, 110 

Germany 60,  810 

France 8,  890 

Other  countries 64, 125 

Another  important  item  was  that  of  drugs  and  medicines,  amounting 
to  762,209  dollars  in  1911: 

Colombian 
dollars. 

United  States 327,  832 

France 154, 005 

Germany 127,912 

Great  Britain 109,  Oil 

Other  countries 43.  449 

In  the  class  called  "Arts  and  trades,"  702,856  dollars'  worth  of 

goods  were  imported,  of  which  the  United  States  furnished  518,486 
ollars.     Wines  and  liquors  amounted  to  628,595  dollars,  of  which 


FOREIGN    TBADE.  315 

the  United  States  supplied  42,059  dollars,  France  196,058  dollars, 
and  England  78,232  dollars.  Germany  led  in  earthenware  and  glass, 
'  with  the  United  States  a  close  second.  Imports  of  paper  products 
amounted  to  453,701  dollars;  of  this  the  United  States  furnished 
190,191  dollars,  with  Germany  second.  Of  electrical  machinery  and 
equipment  the  United  States  furnished  h^lf. 

PREWAR  TRADE  CONDITIONS.^ 

Methods  of  trade  and  business  in  Colombia  vary  little  from  those 
in  most  other  Latin  American  countries.  Specialization  has  not 
been  carried  very  far  as  yet,  with  the  possible  exception  of  the  hard- 
ware trade,  ana  merchants  are  both  importing  wholesalers,  retail 
merchants,  and  exporters,  all  under  one  roof  and  combined.  Many 
such  firms  are  likely  to  be  composed  of  foreigners  settled  in  the 
country,  or  of  merchants  of  foreign  parentage,  and  among  these  the 
Germans  were  conspicuous  before  the  war.  Another  numerous  and 
important  element  is  that  of  the  Syrians,  who  are  very  strong  on  the 
Caribbean  coast  and  are  even  invading  the  interior  at  such  centers  as 
Girardot,  Honda,  etc. 

Very  often,  when  the  Colombians  engaged  in  trade  are  successful, 
they  come  to  the  United  States  or  to  Europe,  where  they  engage  in 
a  general  export  and  import  commission  business  or  purchase  for 
their  own  account  for  their  branch  stores  in  Colombia,  and  these  men 
manage  to  obtain  a  very  considerable  share  of  the  Colombian  business. 
Colombian  firms  so  established  in  New  York  have  been  very  successful 
during  the  war  and  have  become  a  powerful  factor  in  Colombian 
trade,  since  they  maintain  branches  in  all  the  important  commercial 
centers  of  the  country  and  even  engage  in  transportation  ventures  in 
order  to  further  facilitate  their  business. 

Except  for  the  bananas  from  Santa  Marta  and  a  few  special  articles, 
nearly  all  the  exports  of  the  country  go  to  the  commission  houses  of 
the  United  States  and  Europe;  before  the  war,  New  York,  London, 
and  Hamburg,  in  the  order  named,  were  the  principal  markets. 
Even  a  very  large  part  of  the  gold,  silver,  and  platinum  went  to  the 
same  firms. 

The  commission  houses  that  receive  and  sell  the  larger  part  of 
Colombian  exports  also  control  a  large  share  of  the  purchases  made 
by  that  country  abroad.  Few  jobbers  or  manufacturers  have  been 
able  to  make  a  success  of  branch  houses  in  Colombia,  on  account  of 
the  great  distances  between  the  various  commercial  centers  of  the 
country,  the  difficulties  of  intercommunication,  etc. — the  total 
volume  of  business  in  any  one  line  not  being  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
extra  expense.  For  this  same  reason,  the  commission  houses  have 
controlled  the  bulk  of  the  business  with  Colombia,  and  the  average 
Colombian  importer  prefers  to  deal  with  one  or  two  reliable  com- 
mission houses  with  which  he  can  place  all  of  his  orders  for  miscella- 
neous assortments  of  goods  and  be  taken  care  of  on  one  or  two 
accounts,  thus  greatly  simplifying  his  business  and  making  possible 
the  choice  of  a  wide  market  selection. 

Since  the  war  there  has  been  a  decided  tendency  in  Colombia 
toward  greater  speciaUzation,  and  merchants  are  endeavoring  to  get 

1  Certain  parts  of  this  section  are  based  on  statements  appearing  in  "Colombia,"  by  Phanor  J.  Eder. 


316      COLOMBIA:    A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

in  touch  with , manufacturers  or  jobbers  of  certain  lines  in  demand. 
Men's-wear  stores  are  amoncj  the  commercial  innovations,  as  are  also 
millinery  stores,  exclusive  shoe  shops,  etc.  The  largest  stores  make 
a  specialty  of  textiles,  of  course,  and  cheap  cotton  goods  usually 
make  up  at  least  75  per  cent  of  their  stocks. 

Normally,  many  manufacturers  and  jobbers  maintained  agents 
in  Colombia,  located  in  the  various  centers  of  greatest  commercial 
activity.  These  agents  were  selected  from  the  native  or  foreign 
merchants  already  established  in  the  country,  who  combined  several 
lines,  besides  handling  their  own  business,  and  so  were  not  in  a 
position  to  give  the  best  attention  to  anv  one  line  entrusted  to  them. 

Although  the  United  States,  even  before  the  war,  was  the  largest 
buyer  of  Colombian  products  and  the  largest  purveyor  of  merchan- 
dise, very  litt;,le  attention  was  given  to  Colombian  trade  outside  of 
the  commission  houses  directly  interested  in  the  business  of  the 
country.  American  manufacturers  often  refused  agencies  o 
demanded  a  large  initial  order  for  goods;  in  general,  liberal  creditr 
were  not  extended,  stocks  were  not  allowed  to  be  carried,  and  ships 
ments  were  not  made  on  consignment. 

Before  the  war,  European  nouses  had  a  greater  appreciation  of 
Colombian  trade  than  Americans  did,  and  there  were  numerous 
Europeans  settled  in  the  country  and  engaged  in  trade — quite  in 
contrast  to  Americans,  of  whom  there  were  almost  none.  European 
houses  were  also  more  generous  in  the  matter  of  credits,  granting 
six  and  even  nine  months  and  sometimes  a  year,  with  90  days  as  the 
least.  Samples  were  furnished  free  of  charge.  The  Europeans  had 
a  much  better  general  knowledge  of  conditions  in  Colombia,  their 
foreign-trade  education  was  much  better,  they  paid  more  attention 
to  details  of  packing,  billing,  invoicing,  etc.,  and  they  cooperated 
to  a  much  greater  extent.  Colombian  merchants  had  many  grounds 
of  complaint  against  American  manufacturers  and  exporters  and 
much  preferred  to  do  business  with  Europe.  It  is  significant  that 
most  of  the  commission  houses  in  New  York  that  lead  in  trade  with 
Colombia  are  composed  of  foreigners — Germans,  West  Indians, 
native  Colombians,  or  other  Spanish  Americans. 

CONDITIONS  AFTER  THE  WAR. 

The  Colombian  merchants  and  business  people,  long  accustomed 
to  relations  with  Europe,  failed  to  grasp  the  full  significance  of  the 
economic  situation  in  Europe  following  the  armistice.  They  confi- 
dently expected  England,  France,  and  even  Germany  to  begin 
exporting,  the  same  as  before  the  war,  immediately  following  the 
armistice;  and  during  1919  they  refrained  from  buying  for  months 
and  months,  hoping  that  their  old  European  suppliers  would  make 
quotations.  During  the  war  buying  had  been  done  chiefly  in  the 
United  States,  though  Great  Britain  managed  to  keep  up  a  fair  trade 
with  Colombia  in  spite  of  the  lack  of  tonnage  and  the  restrictions  of 
trade  in  general;  but  the  Colombian  merchants,  while  interested  in 
many  of  the  American  products,  liked  the  old  lines  and  customs 
better  and  carefully  watched  both  markets  imtil  the  reaction  of  the 
domestic  market  and  the  brisk  demand  for  goods  forced  them  to 
place  heavy  orders  in  the  United  States  in  1919  in  the  face  of  a 
speculative  and  rising  market.     With  the  exception  of  textiles  (and 


FOREIGN    TRADE. 


317 


more  of  these  were  taken  from  the  United  States  than  ever  before) , 
the  principal  buying  by  Colombia  after  the  armistice  was  in  the 
United  States. 

It  was  during  this  time  of  active  demand  in  Colombia  following 
the  reaction  in  May,  1919,  that  the  Colombian  merchants  fuUv 
realized  the  importance  and  value  of  the  proximity  of  the  New  York 
markets;  there  was  no  time  to  wait  for  delivery  from  Europe  in  six 
months  when  deliveries  could  be  secured  from  the  United  States 
in  four  to  six  weeks;  and,  besides,  all  balances  for  the  coffee  crop 
were  in  New  York,  which  made  financial  arrangements  very  easy. 

So  sure  were  the  Colombians  of  immediate  resumption  of  snip- 
ments  of  goods  from  Europe  after  the  conclusion  of  hostilities  that 
many  merchants  canceled  orders  at  war  prices  by  cable  upon  the 
news  of  the  armistice,  expecting  prices  to  fall  at  once.  The  general 
public  also  expected  a  drop  in  prices  after  the  war.  Buying  was 
very  slow  for  goods  bought  during  the  war  (further  affecting  the  action 
of  the  importers  canceling),  and  textiles  were  offered  at  very  low 
prices  to  clear  stocks.  The  receipt  of  cabled  advices  from  New 
York  in  January  of  considerable  reductions  in  prices  of  various  lines 
further  complicated  the  situation,  with  the  result  that  the  older 
houses  and  more  conservative  merchants  did  not  place  their  usual 
spring  orders,  and  buying  in  Colombia,  or  for  Colombian  stocks, 
became  a  matter  of  speculation.  However,  a  few  shrewd  merchants 
of  the  coast  and  Medellin,  understanding  the  fundamental  situation, 
bought  heavily  at  the  lower  prices  induced  by  the  heavy  cancellations 
in  New  York,  and  later  reaped  a  rich  reward  of  profit  when  the 
Colombian  market  reacted  in  May  and  June  on  account  of  the  coffee 
situation. 

After  the  market  had  reacted  in  May,  buyers  from  the  interior 
flocked  down  to  the  coast  and  to  Medellin  to  buy  goods  at  any  prices ; 
stocks  were  soon  exhausted  there,  and  merchants  nurried  with  orders 
to  New  York — in  many  cases  not  being  able  to  obtain  the  full  assort- 
ments or  qualities  wanted  and  in  most  cases  being  forced  to  content 
themselves  with  smaller  quantities  of  goods  than  they  had  expected 
to  purchase  for  the  home  demand  at  that  time.  The  necessity  was 
to  take  care  of  the  immediate  demand  in  Colombia  for  the  interior 
trade,  but  in  this  merchants  were  handicapped  by  the  slow  deliveries, 
the  lack  of  ocean  freight  service,  and,  still  worse,  transportation 
difficulties  in  the  country  itself  during  this  rush  season. 

During  the  war  Colombian  merchants  found  that  there  were  a 
great  many  articles  called  ''American  specialties"  that  sold  well  in 
Colombia,  and  merchants  were  particularly  anxious  to  pick  up  new 
lines  and  new  items  of  trade.  Among  such  "American  specialties" 
the  following  lines  were  in  active  demand : 


Clocks. 

Kitchen  ware. 

Spices. 

Drugs  and  heavy  chemicals. 

Office  equipment  (files,  cabinets,  etc.). 

Show  cases  and  show-window  fittings. 

Lubricating  oils  and  greases. 

American  white  goods. 


Wire,  l)arbed  and  round. 
Cutlery. 

Leather  shoe  findings. 
Corn-grinding  mills. 
Electric-light  fixtures. 
Haberdashery. 

Heavy    hardware    and    building    hard- 
ware and  fittings. 


318      COLOMBIA:    A    COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
STATISTICS  OF  COMMERCE  IN  1918. 

Following  is  a  summary  statement  of  Colombia's  foreign  trade  for 
1918  (the  1919  returns  are  not  yet  available) : 


Classes  of  trade. 

XOofl. 

Value. 

Imports: 

54,247, 137 
390,739 

Colombian 
dollars. 
19, 900, 905 

By  parcel  post 

2,133,099 

Total 

54,637,876 

22,034,004 

Sxports 

>  234,702,239 

137,728,559 

1  Included  in  these  figures  are  9,492  kilos,  valued  at  98,611  dollars,  that  were  exported  by  parcel  post. 

It  is  apparent  from  the  above  statement  that  in  1918  the  balance 
in  favor  of  exports  amounted  to  15,694,556  dollars. 

The  exports  during  1918  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 


By  groups. 


Groups. 


Value.! 


'  Colombian 
dollars. 

Liveaiiimals 1,432,184 

Animal  products 3,090,378 

Mbieral  products 5, 740, 752 

Vegetable  products  » 2.5, 784, 369 

Manufactured  products 1, 524, 527 

Miscellaneous 22, 148 

Money 35,589 

Parcel-post  exports 98, 612 

Total 37,728,559 


Per- 
centage. 


3.80 

8.19 

15.21 

68.34 

4.04 

.06 

.10 

.26 


100.00 


By  countries  cf  destination. 


Countries. 


Dutch  West  Indies 

France 

Great  Britain , 

Italy 

Panama 

Spain , 

L  nited  States 

Other  countries 

Total 


Value.i 


Colombian 

dollars. 

122,717 

778,364 

284,728 

21,443 

1,649,769 

554,764 

31,134,005 

3,182,769 


Per- 
centage. 


0.32 

1.47 

82.52 

2.06 

.75 

.06 

4.38 

8.44 


37,728,559 


100.00 


'  Values  based  on  prices  obtained  in  foreign  markets. 
'  Mainly  coHee. 


The  following  table  shows  the  weight  and  value  of  the  imports  to 
Colombia,  and  the  duties  collected  on  them,  during  the  last  nine 
years  for  which  statistics  are  available: 


Years. 


KilOB. 


1910.. 
1911.. 
1912.. 
1913.. 
1914.. 
1915.. 
1916.. 
1917.. 
1918. . 


90,721,616 
116,087,811 
135,819,367 
158,774,092 
127,752,061 
104,983,208 
115,215,155 
99,743,409 
54,637,876 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
17,385,040 
18,108,863 
23,964,623 
28,535,780 
20,979,229 
17,840,350 
29,660,206 
24,758,^15 
22,034,004 


Duties  col- 
lected. 


Colombian 

dollars. 
7,431,657 
7,704,677 
9,322,860 

12,035,185 
9,554,386 
7,400,481 

11,387,212 
7,978,896 
4,880,002 


The  above  table  shows  the  high  year  of  1913  prior  to  the  war,  during 
which  158,774  metric  tons  of  merchandise  were  imported  into  Colom- 
bia, having  a  total  value  of  more  than  28,000,000  dollars.  Imports 
decreased  gradually  during  the  war  years  of  1914,  1915,  and  1916 
until  the  entrance  of  the  United  States  into  the  war,  after  which  the 


FOKEIGN    TRADE. 


319 


quantity  of  Colombian  imports  was  cut  to  almost  one-third  in  1918. 
The  Government  received  only  about  one-third  of  the  usual  revenue 
collected  on  imports,  and  this  precipitated  a  financial  crisis.  One  can 
readily  see  how  the  high  prices  paid  for  all  imports  affected  returns. 
In  1913,  158,774  metric  tons  were  valued  at  28,535,779  dollars, 
while  in  1918  only  54,637  metric  tons  cost  22,034,004  dollars.  From 
this  it  would  appear  that  an  ad  valorem  system  would  better  answer 
the  needs  of  the  Government.  The  main  difficulty  lies  in  the  lack  of 
experienced  appraisers  and  the  fear  that  this  system  might  bring 
about  fraud. 

Imports  by  principal  classes  were  as  follows  during  1918: 


Classes. 


Oils  and  greases 

Foodstuffs 

Combustibles 

Ammals 

Agriculture,  mines,  etc. . .. 

Arts  and  crafts  and  profes- 
sions  

Arms  and  ammunition 

Paints,  varnishes,  etc 

Wines  and  liquors 

Glass,  crystal,  chinaware 
etc i 

Rubber,  celluloid,  etc 

Shell,  bone,  etc 

Leather  and  leather  prod- 
ucts  

Drugs  and  medicines 


Value. 

Percent- 
age. 

Colombian 
dollars. 

213,838 

0.97 

881,511 

4.00 

915,282 
14,952 

4.15 
.07 

854,966 

3.88 

240,186 

1.09 

68,148 

.31 

192,884 

.88 

294,116 

1.33 

506,321 
78, 169 

2.30 
.35 

42,904 

.20 

332, 235 

1.51 

994,032 

4.51 

Classes. 


Electricity , 

Explosives,  etc , 

Musical  instruments 

Locomotion 

Woods  and  manufactures  of 
Metals  and  manufactures  of 
Paper  and  paper  products. 

Soap  and  perfumery 

Plants  and  seeds 

Textiles 

Tobacco  and  manufactures 

of 

Miscellaneous 

Parcel-post  imports 

Total 


Value. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

275,382 

130,588 

77,662 

707,726 

124,074 

2,320,769 

710,691 

101,057 

6,454 

9,587,893 

193, 492 

35,573 

2, 133, 099 


Percent- 
age. 


L25 
.59 
.35 

3.21 

.56 

10.53 

3.23 

.46 

.03 

43.52 


.16 
9.68 


100.00 


It  will  be  seen  that  parcel-post  imports  constituted  nearly  10  per 
cent  of  the  total  imports;  these  were  chiefly  made  up  of  fancy  dry 
goods,  men's  and  women's  wear,  etc. 

The  largest  percentage  was  in  textiles,  amounting  to  more  than  43 

Eer  cent  of  the  total  imports.     In  previous  years  tms  percentage  had 
een  still  higher,  at  times  reaching  60  per  cent. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  imports  in  1918  by  coim tries  of 
origin : 


Coimtries. 

Value. 

Percent- 
age. 

Countries. 

Value. 

Percent- 
age. 

Cuba 

Colombian 

dollars. 

35,592 

45,862 

195,203 

0.16 

.21 

.88 

56.72 

3.17 

26.93 

Panama 

ColoTubian 

dollars. 

482,181 

330,480 

1,814,871 

2.19 

Dutch  West  Indies 

1.50 

France 

other  countries 

8.24 

12,497,707 

697,472 

5,934,636 

Total 

Italy 

Netherlands 

22,034,004 

100.00 

320     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 
POSITION  OF  UNITED  STATES  IN  COLOMBIAN  TRADE. 

Out  of  the  total  pxports,  amounting  to  37,728,559  Colombian  dol- 
lars, the  United  States  received  31,134,004  dollars'  worth  in  1918,  or 
82.52  per  cent;  and  of  the  total  imports,  amounting  to  22,034,004 
Colombian  dollars,  the  United  States  furnished  12,497,707  dollars' 
worth,  or  56.72  per  cent.  Of  imports  the  United  States  furnished  56 
per  cent  in  1917  and  53  per  cent  in  1916.  The  United  States  received 
92  per  cent  of  all  exports  in  1916  and  89  §  per  cent  in  1917. 

The  chief  article  competing  with  the  United  States  in  Colombian 
trade  was  cheap  cotton,  textiles  from  England,  which  country  fur- 
nished in  1918  2,857,956  kilos  of  such  goods,  valued  at  5,033,570 
Colombian  dollars — representing  almost  tne  entire  amount  of  Great 
Britain's  shipments  to  Colombia. 


CUSTOMS  TARIFF  AND  IMPORT  DUTIES. 

INTRODUCTION:  GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS. 

The  import  duties  of  Colombia  are  specific  and  assessed  on  the  gross 
weight  of  the  contained  merchandise,  including  wrapping,  boxes,  etc. 
Imports  are  divided  into  a  series  of  groups  for  tariff  classification  pur- 
poses (see  "Codigo  de  Aduanas  de  Colombia")-  Import  duties  on 
merchandise  imported  through  the  usual  freight  channels  are  not  now 
assessed  according  to  the  highest  value  of  article  contained  in  a  mixed 
package,  as  was  formerly  the  case;  the  law  has  been  changed  so  as  to 

Eermit  "mixed"  shipments  in  the  same  container,  packing  cases 
eing  opened  and  inspected  in  the  customhouses  at  the  ports  of  entry 
and  the  goods  classified  according  to  the  invoices  and  packing  lists 
provided  for  the  purpose.  The  weight  of  the  container  or  packing 
IS  divided  proportionately  among  the  different  kinds  of  articles  in 
determining  the  respective  duties.  Formerly,  before  this  reform  was 
put  into  practice,  a  machine,  consisting  principally  of  cast  iron  but 
with  brass  fittings  attached,  was  assessed  according  to  the  high  rate 
of  the  brass  articles  found  thereon.  However,  the  change  mentioned 
does  not  as  yet  apply  to  shipments  by  parcel  post,  in  which  goods  are 
assessed  according  to  the  highest  value — that  is,  the  highest  rate  for 
any  group  of  contents.     (See  p.  328.) 

The  fundamental  system  for  levying  import  duties  on  the  gross 
weight,  regardless  of  value,  imposes  a  heavy  tax  and  an  onerous 
restraint  on  commerce  in  general. 

A  purpose  to  protect  infant  native  industries  exists  in  Colombia. 
Flour,  shoes,  cotton  goods,  wheat,  sugar,  etc.,  are  protected  by  a  high 
import  duty,  which,  in  view  of  the  small  volume  of  domestic  manu- 
facture in  many  of  these  lines,  really  operates  to  the  disadvantage 
of  the  public  by  bringing  about  an  increase  in  cost,  since  the  prices 
of  the  domestic  products  have  a  direct  relation  to  the  competition 
with  imported  articles.  For  example,  in  1918  the  import  duty  on 
wheat  was  increased  with  the  idea  of  stimulating  the  native  industry, 
which  flourishes  on  the  table-land  of  Bogota.  The  result  was  that 
wheat  could  no  longer  be  imported  by  the  cities  of  the  coast,  where 
there  are  flour  mills,  and,  moreover,  could  not  be  brought  down  from 
Bogota  on  account  of  the  very  high  freight  charges  down  the  Mag- 
dalena  River  and  the  damage  received  in  transit  in  consequence  of 
the  climate.  The  result  was  a  shortage  of  flour  on  the  coast,  and 
the  law  had  to  be  altered  and  the  duty  reduced  enough  to  allow  the 
coast  to  continue  the  importation  of  wheat  from  the  United  States 
for  local  milling  into  flour. 

From  time  to  time  there  have  been  movements  to  secure  the  re- 
modeling of  the  present  system,  but  the  Government  has  been 
reluctant  to  undertake  this.  It  is  argued  that,  if  the  ad  valorem 
system  were  to  be  adopted,  skilled  and  experienced  appraisers  would 
be  necessary  (and  that  the  country  could  not  supply  them) ,  that  the 
cost  of  collection  and  administration  would  be  increased,  and  that 

37558°— 21 21  -  321 


322    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

evasion  of  proper  payment  would  be  more  usual  than  is  now  the  case. 
The  only  ad  valorem  duty  now  in  force  is  on  precious  stones,  which 
pay  10  per  cent. 

All  other  goods  are  arranged  into  16  groups,  or  classes,  the  duties 
ranging  from  the  minimum  of  1  cent  per' kilo  (gross  weight),  as  on 
machinery.  Canned  goods  are  practically  excluded,  as  are  also 
many  other  lines.  Cheap  shoes  pay  the  same  rate  as  the  best  quality, 
and  similar  conditions  exist  in  other  classes.  Many  articles  are 
admitted  free  of  duty,  such  as  railway  equipment  and  materials, 
instruction  equipments,  books  for  schools,  etc.,  construction  materials, 
live  animals  for  breeding  purposes,  etc. 

Invoice  and  technical  requirements  are  complicated  and  difficult 
to  follow  and  understand,  while  violations  result  in  fines,  more  or 
less  heavy.  There  is  a  system  in  vogue  of  paying  the  denouncer  of 
a  fraud  (or  mistake)  one-half  of  the  proceeas  in  auties  and  in  fines, 
and  the  result  is  that  advantage  is  taken  of  every  small  oversight 
and  mistake  in  connection  with  the  declaration  of  imports.  Expor- 
ters are  best  advised  to  follow  strictly  the  instructions  of  the  Colom- 
bian customer  regarding  declarations  of  goods  in  consular  invoices; 
they  make  a  close  study  of  all  classifications,  and  in  the  event  of 
disputes  are  very  often  able  to  secure  a  more  favorable  classification 
and  ruling  by  the  officials  at  the  port  of  entry.  They  possess  the 
latest  rulings  and  are  best  equipped  to  take  the  responsibility.  The 
duties  being  so  high,  it  is  vitally  essential  that  merchants  should 
study  import  tariffs  in  Colombia  in  order  to  price  goods  properly  and 
meet  competition.  Their  instructions  as  to  invoicing  should  always 
be  followed  by  exporters. 

There  are  surtaxes  as  follows :  2  per  cent  for  the  conversion  fund, 
5  per  cent  for  roads,  3  per  cent  for  consular  invoices  (parcel  post  is 
5  per  cent) . 

Some  ports  have  different  schedules.  Tumaco  pays  only  50  per 
cent  of  the  original  rates. 

Treasury  bonds  are  accepted  as  part  payment  of  import  duties. 
These  bonds  sell  at  as  much  as  30  per  cent  below  par  and  are  bought 
up  by  the  merchants  and  local  banks  and  used  in  the  payment  of 
import  duties.  Banks  buy  these  bonds,  which  have  been  issued  in 
payment  of  Government  salaries,  obligations  for  subsidies  of  railways, 
etc.,  and  sell  them  to  the  merchants,  making  a  profit  on  the  trans- 
action. Rates  of  exchange  vary  according  to  the  local  supply  and 
demand.  Merchants  are  able  to  effect  a  considerable  saving  in  this 
manner. 

In  1914  customs  duties  were  reduced  to  some  extent  by  new,  re- 
formed laws.  In  an  analysis  of  the  reductions  it  was  found  that  dur- 
ing a  period  of  two  years  the  average  value  per  100  kilos  of  imported 
merchandise  under  the  old  law  was  $17.59  and  under  the  new  law 
$16.74.  The  average  import  duty  collected  under  the  old  tariff  was 
$7.36  per  100  kilos  and  under  the  new  rates  $6.83 — a  reduction  of 
7.2  per  cent  in  the  average  duty  collected  on  all  imports.  This 
reduction  in  revenue  was,  however,  more  than  compensated  by 
increased  rates  on  oils  and  greases,  cotton  goods,  flour,  etc.  The 
average  duty  on  all  imports  amounts  to  42  per  cent  of  the  value. 

It  is  also  noticed  that  imports  have  decreased  in  the  case  of  the 
more  expensive  articles,  wnich  pay  lower  duties  in  proportion  to 
their  value,  and  that  most  imports  have  risen  in  value  in  the  countries 


CUSTOMS   TARIFF   AN^D  IMPORT  DUTIES.  323 

of  origin,  indicating  that,  if  prices  had  remained  the  same,  there 
would  have  been  an  even  greater  reduction  in  the  duty  collected. 

As  all  import  duties  are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  entire 
package,  every  pound  of  unnecessary  weight  used  in  packing  con- 
tainers, wrapping,  etc.,  means  a  dead  loss  to  the  buyer,  or  an  increase 
in  the  cost  price. 

In  the  second  place,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  when  a  package 
contains  articles  that  pay  different  rates  of  duty — being  what  is 
called  a  ''mixed"  package — the  whole  package  is  taxed  at  the  rate 
of  the  highest-rated  article  contained,  unless  the  net  weight  of  each 
different  article  is  stated  in  the  consular  invoice  and  the  weight  of  the 
container  and  pacJcing  is  given  separately  to  malce  the  total  gross  weight. 
The  best  plan  is  to  pack  separately  articles  taking  a  different  rate  of 
import  duty. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  PRESENT  TARIFF  SYSTEM. 

The  present  customs  tariff  of  Colombia  was  adopted  December  6, 

1913.  Before  that  time  the  tariff  divided  imports  into  16  classes, 
on  each  of  which  a  specific  rate  of  duty  was  provided. 

The  new  tariff  definitely  incorporated  the  increases  made  by  the 
surtax  of  70  per  cent  imposed  in  1905.  It  contained  a  number  of 
other  increased  rates  of  duty,  especially  on  rice,  tea,  flour,  wheat, 
butter,  sewing  machines,  laboratory  instruments,  and  ready-made 
clothing,  on  all  of  which  the  rates  were  advanced  by  20  to  100  per 
cent.  Separate  specific  rates  of  duty  are  prescribed  for  each  article, 
the  articles  being  arranged  under  26  groups,  with  subdivisions. 
Articles  not  specified  in  the  tariff  are  dutiable  at  60  per  cent  ad 
valorem.  This  duty  is  not  to  be  applied,  however,  on  articles  that 
the  customs  board  (Jurado  de  Aduanas)  decides  may  fairly  be  as- 
similated to  articles  that  are  specified  in  the  tariff. 

Colombia  has  a  general  law  providing  that  changes  in  the  tariff 
rates  shall  be  made  gradually.  Accordingly  the  increases  in  the 
rates  of  duty  made  by  the  tariff  adopted  December  6,  1913,  were 
applied  in  tliree  monthly  installments,  beginning  one  month  after 
the  approval  of  the  law,  and  hence  came  into  full  force  on  March 
6,  1914.  Reductions  in  duty  are  postponed  three  months,  and  then 
are  divided  into  10  equal  installments.     Accordingly,  on  March  6, 

1914,  one-tenth  of  the  difference  between  the  old  and  the  new  rate 
was  taken  off,  and  a  similar  reduction  was  made  each  succeeding 
month  until  the  lower  rate  as  prescribed  by  the  new  tariff  became 
fully  effective  on  December  6,  1914,  exactly  one  year  after  the  approval 
of  the  law. 

A  number  of  important  changes  in  the  classifications  and  import 
duties  fixed  by  the  tariff  law  of  1913  are  contained  in  a  law  of 
December  19,  1916. 

In  1919  the  Colombian  Congress  increased  the  customs  duties  on 
certain  imports. 

CUSTOMS  DUTIES  AND  CHARGES. 

Aside  from  the  tariff  duties  proper,  there  is  a  surtax  of  2  per  cent 
of  the  duties  and  various  additional  charges  as  follows:  Unloading 
and  transfer  to  warehouse,  warehouse  charge  (if  goods  are  not  re- 


324      (COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

moved  within  15  days),  stamp  taxes  on  manifests  and  consular  invoices, 
brokerage  charges,  internal-revenue  taxes  on  certain  articles,  and  a 
river  tax  for  goods  transported  on  the  Magdalena  River  to  the 
interior  of  Colombia. 

SURTAX. 

Besides  the  surtax  of  70  per  cent  of  the  ordinary  duties,  which, 
being  incorporated  in  the  rate  prescribed  by  the  law  of  1913,  was 
naturally  discontinued  as  a  separate  charge,  a  surtax  of  2  per  cent 
of  the  duties  is  still  in  force. 

CUSTOMS  CHARGES. 

A  vessel  entering  a  Colombian  port  is  subject  to  tonnage  tax, 
lighthouse  dues,  and  consular  fees  on  the  manifest.  While  the  light- 
house dues  are  based  on  the  registered  tonnage,  the  tonnage  tax  is 
fixed  at  $2  per  1,000  kilos  of  goods  unloaded  at  the  Colombian  port, 
and  the  consular  fees  amount  to  one-eighth  of  1  per  cent  of  the 
value  declared  in  the  consular  manifest.  While  all  these  taxes  are 
levied  on  the  vessel,  they  undoubtedly  influence  freight  rates,  and 
thus,  indirectly,  affect  the  importer. 

The  importer  must  pay  directly  a  stamp  tax  on  the  manifest  that 
he  presents.  The  document  must  be  in  quadruplicate,  and  the  forms 
themselves  cost  10  cents  a  set.  To  three  of  these  copies  stamps  to  the 
amount  of  80  cents  must  be  attached,  so  that  the  total  outlay  in  con- 
nection with  the  importer's  manifest  is  $2.50.  Forty  cents  in  stamps 
must  also  be  attached  to  the  consular  invoice  which  accompanies  the 
manifest. 

At  Cartagena  the  same  company  that  has  the, wharf  concession 
operates  the  railway  between  tne  wharf  and  the  city.  A  charge  of 
$1.40  per  ton  is  made  for  the  unloading  and  transfer  of  merchandise 
from  the  ship  to  the  railway  warehouse  in  the  city. 

Customs  storage  is  not  obligatory.  No  charge  is  made  if  goods 
are  removed  within  a  period  fixed  by  the  collector  of  customs  not  to 
exceed  15  days.  If  goods  are  not  removed  within  the  time  set,  the 
following  storage  charges  are  collected :  For  each  of  the  first  30  days, 
2  cents  per  pacKage  not  exceeding  75  kilos  in  weight;  for  each  of  the 
next  90  days,  5  cents  per  package;  and  thereafter  10  cents  a  day 
per  package  until  a  year  from  the  date  of  importation  of  the  goods. 
If  goods  are  not  removed  within  that  time,  they  are  put  up  for  sale 
at  public  auction. 

The  regular  customs  storage  charges  apply  only  to  goods  deposited 
before  the  payment  of  duties.  According  to  a  decree  of  December  3, 
1917,  duty-paid  goods  may  remain  in  the  customs  warehouse  for  a 
reasonable  time,  not  to  exceed  15  days,  after  which  storage  will  be 
charged.  The  charge  for  such  storage  was  fixed,  by  a  decree  of 
March  11,  1918,  at  $0.20  per  metric  ton  for  each  day  (above  the 
allotted  time)  during  which  the  goods  remain  in  storage. 

Customs  brokers  usually  charge  from  $3  to  $5  for  each  shipment, 
and  in  addition  there  is  a  charge  of  10  cents  a  package  for  opening 
and  examining  the  goods  in  the  customhouse. 


CUSTOMS   TAKIFF  AND  IMPORT  DUTIES.  325 

CUSTOMS  PROCEDURE. 

CONSULAR  REQUIREMENTS. 

For  a  discussion  of  consular  requirements,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
page  375. 

NECESSITY  OF  CARE  IN  FILLING  OUT  INVOICES. 

Consul  Isaac  A.  Manning  emphasizes  strongly  the  need  for  extreme 
care  in  filling  out  invoices  of  merchandise  intended  for  the  Republic 
of  Colombia : 

When  merchandise  imported  intx5  Colombia  has  been  wrongly  manifested  in  order 
to  evade  the  payment  of  the  customs  duty  rightly  due,  such  merchandise  can  not  be 
abandoned  in  the  customhouse  by  the  importer.     The  importer  is  held  liable  for  the 

gayment  of  the  duties  on  such  merchandise  at  the  rate  rightly  applicable  to  it,  and  is 
irther  liable  to  a  fine. 

If  the  importer,  in  view  of  the  discovery  of  fraud,  should  at- 
tempt to  abandon  the  goods,  they  are  sold  at  auction  and  if  the 
amount  of  duty  is  not  realized  from  such  sale,  restitution  for  the 
amount  remaining  due  must  be  made  by  the  owner  of  the  goods. 

"TO  ORDER"  SHIPMENTS.  1 

The  Colombian  customs  law  authorizes  the  clearance  of  merchan- 
dise from  the  customhouse  on  presentation  of  the  certified  consular 
invoice,  together  with  four  copies  of  the  customhouse  manifest,  this 
latter  to  be  made  and  signed  by  the  importer  or  his  agent;  but  it  does 
not  require  the  presentation  of  a  bill  of  lading  for  this  purpose. 
The  clearance  must  be  effected  within  five  days  from  receipt  oi  the 
shipment  at  the  eustomhouse. 

Should  the  importer  fail  to  receive  his  copy  of  the  invoice,  he  may 
ask  the  customs  collector  to  issue  an  extra  copy  of  the  certified  in- 
voice, for  which  a  small  fee  is  charged  for  stamped  paper. 

Consignments  ''to  order"  are  not  recognized  by  Colombian  fiscal 
law^,  and  the  only  manner  in  which  such  shipments  could  be  made 
would  be  by  consigning  the  shipment,  under  previous  agreement  with 
the  bank  or  import  agents  and  the  importer,  to  a  bank  or  import 
agent.  This  is  done  only  on  rare  occasions  in  this  country.  The 
usual  custom  among  European  and  American  exporters  is  to  ship 
the  merchandise  direct  to  tne  importer  and,  if  a  draft  is  to  be  pre- 
sented for  acceptance  or  payment  on  delivery  at  Barranquilla,  this  is 
sent  through  some  bank.  The  house  on  which  the  draft  is  drawn 
must  accept  or  pay  the  draft  in  accordance  with  its  contract  with  the 
exporter,  or  fina  its  credit  damaged  by  failure  to  do  so. 

American  exporters  who  are  doing  large  business  with  Colombia 
find  this  regulation  acceptable,  if  not  entirely  satisfactory,  and  con- 
tinue doing  profitable  business  with  Colombian  merchants  on  the 
basis  mentioned. 

While  it  might  be  possible  to  bring  about  an  amendment  to  the 
customs  law,  so  as  to  provide  for  the  requirement  of  the  certified 
bill  of  lading  before  delivery  of  the  goods,  this  might  result  in  other 
complications,  even  to  the  confiscation  of  the  merchandise  by  the 
Government  for  failure  to  clear  same  from  the  customhouse  within 
the  five  days  specified.     Much  of  the  merchandise  intended  for  the 

1  By  Isaac  Manning,  American  consul. 


326    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

interior  of  the  country  must  be  cleared  by  customhouse  brokers  be- 
fore mail  leaves  Barranquilla  for  the  interior,  and  if  clearance  of 
merchandise  for  Bogota  or  Medellin,  etc.,  had  to  await  the  accept- 
ance of  a  draft  by  the  importer  in  those  places,  it  would  mean  a  delay 
of  atf  least  two  months  in  many  cases  lor  the  merchandise  to  reach 
him. 

According  to  article  12  of  the  customs  regulations,  enacted  Decem- 
ber 9,  1915,  it  is  provided  that  the  shipper  who  is  found  to  have 
committed  fraudulent  declarations  in  invoices  shall  thereafter  be 
prohibited  from  making  any  declarations  regarding  shipments  to 
Colombia,  and  therefore  consuls  shall  withhold  certification  from 
any  invoices  that  such  shipper  may  thereafter  present. 

MANIFESTS. 

Within  24  hours  after  the  entrance  of  a  vessel  in  a  Colombian  port 
the  captain  or  consignee  of  the  vessel  shall  present  a  manifest  to  the 
collector  of  customs  and  request  a  permit  to  unload.  Within  48 
hours  thereafter— that  is,  72  hours  after  the  arrival  of  the  vessel — 
the  importer  must  present  a  manifest  (or  entry)  in  quadruplicate, 
"  which  .shall  contain  the  same  data  as  the  consular  invoice."  If  entry 
is  not  made  within  the  72  hours  allowed,  a  fine  of  10  per  cent  of  the 
duties  is  imposed.  After  the  payment  of  this  fine,  however,  goods  are 
allowed  to  remain  in  customs  warehouse,  at  least  at  Cartagena,  for 
one  vear  without  additional  charge.  On  each  of  three  copies  of  the 
manifest  an  80-cent  stamp  must  bo  affixed,  and  on  the  accompanying 
consular  invoice  a  stamp  of  40  cents.  Since  the  set  of  documents 
costs  10  cents,  the  entire  expense  connected  with  the  declaration  is 
$2.90. 

No  other  document  is  required  to  make  entry  of  goods.  The 
presentation  of  the  bill  of  lading  is  not  requisite,  the  consular  invoice 
being  deemed  sufficient  proof  of  ownership.  Even  if  the  consular  in- 
voice has  not  been  received  by  the  importer  he  may  obtain,  by  an 
expenditure  of  $1  in  stamped  paper  and  repayment  of  the  cost  of 
preparing  the  document,  a  copy  oi  the  invoice  that  has  been  trans- 
mitted by  the  consul  to  the  customhouse. 

If  no  invoice  has  been  received  either  hj  the  collector  or  importer, 
a  fine  of  25  per  cent  of  the  amount  of  duties  on  the  entire  shipment 
must  be  paid. 

The  manifest  not  only  serves  to  register  the  transfer  of  the  goods 
from  the  vessel  to  the  custody  of  the  customs,  but  likewise  is  the 
document  used  in  the  appraisement  of  the  goods  and  the  liquidation 
of  the  duties. 

APPRAISEMENT  AND  FINES. 

If  the  manifest  is  found  to  conform  to  the  consular  invoice,  the  col- 
lector of  customs  designates  an  appraiser,  a  weigher,  and  one  other 
employee  to  make  the  examination,  and  the  appraiser  notes  on  the 
manifest  any  discrepancy. 

If  the  actual  weignt  of  goods  is  found  to  be  less  than  that  recorded 
on  the  manifest,  and  the  difference  does  not  exceed  15  per  cent,  the 
duty  is  assessed  on  the  actual  weight,  not  on  the  (higher)  weight 
declared.  If  the  declared  weight  exceeds  the  actual  weight  by  more 
than  15  per  cent,  or  if  the  actual  weight  exceeds  the  declared  weight 


CUSTOMS   TARIFF   AXD   IMPORT   DUTIES.  327 

by  more  than  10  per  cent,  a  fine  is  imposed  equal  to  20  per  cent  of  the 
duties  on  the  difference. 

If  on  examination  it  is  found  that  the  articles  in  the  shipment  are 
subject  to  higher  rates  of  duty  than  are  declared  in  the  invoice,  the 
importer  must  pay,  besides  the  regular  duties  on  the  goods  found  by 
the  appraiser,  a  fine  equal  to  double  the  difference  in  duty. 

If  it  is  found  that  the  description  of  the  goods  is  incorrect  in 
more  than  two  packages,  all  the  packages  in  the  shipment  must  be 
opened,  and  if  tne  false  declaration  affects  more  than  five  packages 
in  the  shipment,  the  regular  fine  is  increased  by  one-half. 

If  the  invoice  contains  goods  dutiable  at  different  rates  it  must 
show  the  weight  of  each  article  separately.  Otherwise  each  pack- 
age covered  by  the  invoice  must  be  opened  and  an  increase  of  5  per 
cent  of  the  duties  is  applied. 

The  customs  regulations  in  each  case  refer  to  differences  between 
the  "invoice"  and  the  findings  of  the  appraiser.  This  brings  out 
clearly  the  exact  conformity  that  is  necessary  between  the  invoice 
and  the  manifest. 

UQUIDATION  AND  PAYMENT  OF  DUTIES. 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  appraisement  the  liquidator  calculates 
on  the  fourth  copy  of  the  manifest  all  import  duties  and  other  cus- 
toms charges.  If  more  than  one  fine  has  been  incurred  each  is  cal- 
culated on  the  amount  of  duties  involved ;  the  first  fine  is  not  added 
to  the  duties  to  serve  as  a  basis  for  calculating  a  subsequent  fine.  The 
manifest  on  which  the  duties  have  been  liquidated  is  handed  over 
to  the  importer,  who,  upon  payment,  obtains  a  receipt  from  the 
cashier  on  the  manifest. 

Importers  having  any  considerable  dealings  with  the  customs 
usually  give  a  time  bond,  under  which  they  are  permitted  to  post- 
pone payment  of  duties  for  15  days.  In  the  absence  of  such  a  bond 
duties  must  be  paid  in  cash. 

APPEALS. 

Appeals  may  be  taken  within  six  days  after  liquidation  of  duties 
to  a  customs  board  (Jurado  de  Aduanas),  consisting  of  the  Minister 
of  Finance,  another  Government  official,  and  a  man  in  private  life 
elected  every  two  years  by  the  House  of  Representatives.  The  im- 
porter is  required  to  make  a  deposit  of  the  liquidated  amount  of 
duties. 

The  functions  of  the  board  are  to  decide  appeals  from  fines  imposed 
by  collectors  of  customs,  to  determine  matters  of  classification  which 
sfiall  be  applied  at  all  customhouses  until  superseded  by  an  act  of 
Congress,  and  to  make  an  annual  report  to  Congress  on  aU  ques- 
tions of  classification  that  have  been  decided. 

,  EXEMPTION  FROM  DUTY. 

Special  regulations  are  in  force  to  insure  the  strict  application  of 
laws  or  decrees  according  exemptions  from  duty  or  reduced  rates 
of  duty.  To  obtain  admission  of  mining  supplies,  for  example,  at 
the  reduced  rate  applied  in  that  case,  it  is  necessary  to  produce  proof 
in  the  form  of  a  certificate  from  the  governor  of  the  Department 


328    COLOMBIA:  a  commerctaj^  and  industrial  handbook. 

in  which  the  mine  is  located,  stating  that  the  supphes  are  intended 
exchisively  for  the  operation  of  the  mine. 

Specially  exempted  articles  must  always  be  invoiced  separately 
from  articles  subject  to  duty.  Such  articles,  if  imported  by  parcel 
post,  lose  their  right  to  free  entry. 

TEMPORARY  ADMISSION. 

Clothing,  machinery,  musical  instruments,  and  other  properties 
of  musical  or  theatrical  companies  may  be  imported  free  under  bond 
upon  presentation  of  an  invoice  giving  a  complete  list  of  the  articles. 
Snould  any  of  the  articles  entered  be  missing  at  the  time  of  reexpor- 
tation the  corresponding  import  duty  must  be  collected. 

Somewhat  similar  regulations  apply  to  the  free  admission  of 
scientific  instruments  imported  by  exploring  or  scientific  expeditions. 
In  order  to  obtain  their  free  admission,  official  credentials  must  be 
presented  to  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs  of  Colombia,  and  infor- 
mation in-  regard  to  the  proposed  itinerary,  as  well  as  any  other 
data  that  may  be  requestea,  must  be  furnished  to  the  Government. 

The  way  to  obtain  free  admission  of  samples  is  indicated  on  page  390. 

PARCEL-POST  IMPORTS. 

Imports  by  parcel  post  should  be  accompanied  by  an  invoice,  which, 
however,  need  not  be  certified  by  the  Colombian  consul.  On  all  such 
imports  a  surtax  of  5  per  cent  ad  valorem  is  imposed  in  place  of  the 
consular  fee  levied  on  imports  shipped  by  freight.  This  tax,  i'fnlike 
the  regular  import  duties,  is  calculated  on  the  invoiced  value  of  the 
articles  imported,  exclusive  of  transportation  and  similar  charges. 
If  the  addressee  wishes  immediate  delivery  of  goods  received  by 
parcel  post,  but  is  unable  to  present  the  invoice  because  of  loss  or 
delay,  the  value  is  fixed  by  appraisement.  After  payment  of  the  5 
per  cent  tax  no  correction  will  be  made  if  the  importer  should  later 
present  an  invoice  showing  a  lower  value  than  that  on  which  the 
tax  was  based. 

Gold  coin,  for  which  no  consular  fee  is  prescribed  when  shipped 
through  ordinary  commercial  channels,  is  likewise  exempt  from  the 
5  per  cent  surtax  when  imported  by  parcel  post. 

Imports  W  parcel  post  are  uniformly  dutiable  according  to  the 
regular  tariff;  the  reduction  allowed  on  imports  through  commercial 
channels  entered  at  certain  ports  is  no  longer  extended  to  imports 
by  parcel  post. 

If  articles  dutiable  at  different  tariff  rates  are  mailed  in  the  same 
parcel  they  are  all  dutiable  at  the  rate  applicable  to  the  article  paying 
the  highest  rate  of  import  duty. 

Only  samples  of  no  commercial  value  may  be  admitted  free  of 
customs  duties  when  imported  through  the  mail.  Single  gloves, 
single  stockings,  and  single  sMrt  cuffs,  unless  mutilated  so  as  to 
render  them  unfit  for  use,  are  explicitly  excluded  from  free  entry. 
This  ruling  was  made  because  of  the  claim  that  certain  importers 
were  seeking  to  evade  the  payment  of  customs  duties  by  importing 
such  articles  in  different  shipments. 

The  Government  has  also  decided  that  articles  for  which  a  special 
exemption  from  duty  has  been  granted  lose  that  privilege  if  im- 
ported through  the  mail.     The  special  case  on  which  the  decision 


CUSTOMS  TAKITF  AND  IMPORT  DUTIES.  329 

was  rendered  had  to  do  with  the  importation  of  supplies,  implements, 
and  sundries  for  use  in  a  match  factory,  to  which  special  exemption 
from  customs  duties  had  been  granted.  The  Minister  of  Finance 
decided  that  free  importation  should  be  allowed  only  on  goods  im- 
ported through  the  customhouse,  since  customs  officials  alone  were  in 
a  position  to  apply  strictly  the  special  regulations  governing  the 
remission  of  duty.  The  ruling  has  bearing  on  the  importation  of 
material  by  railroad,  navigation,  and  manufacturing  companies  to 
which  special  exemption  from  duty  has  been  accorded,  and  duty  is 
therefore  payable  at  the  regular  rate  unless  the  importation  is  made 
through  the  customhouse. 

INTERNAL  REVENUE  AND  RIVER  TAX. 

In  addition  to  import  duties  and  customs  charges,  certain  internal 
taxes  are  imposed  on  imported  tobacco,  beverages,  perfumery,  and 
playing  cards.  The  following  is  a  complete  list  of  the  internal  taxes, 
which  are  levied  on  gross  weight  and  paid  by  means  of  stamps 
affixed  to  the  containers: 

[Colombian  dolIar= $0.9733.] 


Articles. 


Colom- 
bian 
dollars. 


Tobacco: 

1-eaf.  smoking,  or  chewing,  imported per  kilo. . 

Cigarettes,  imported  or  containing  imported  tobacco- 
Pet  package  not  exceeding  30  grams per  i)ack^e. . 

For  each  additional  15  grams  or  fraction  thereof do 

Cigars,  imported  or  made  of  imported  tobacco per  kilo. . 

Imported  liquors: 

Brandy,  whisky,  gin,  rum,  and  other  distilled  liquors,  containing  more  than  22  per  cent  of 
alcohol — 

Per  bottle  not  exceeding  200  grams I^er  bottle. . 

For  each  additional  200  grams  or  fraction  thereof do 

Imported  wines: 

Red  or  white,  in  pipes,  casks,  or  demijohns — 

Containing  not  more  than  15  per  cent  of  alcohol per  kilo. . 

Containing  more  than  15  and  not  more  than  22  per  cent  of  alcohol do 

Full-bo-iied  wines,  red,  such  as  port,  muscatel,  ma'.aga,  sherry,  and  vermouth do 

Sparkling  wines,  containing  not  more  than  22  per  cent  of  alcohol — 

Red do.... 

Whit  e  or  yellow do 

Champagne per  liter. . 

Imported  l)eer per  kilo. . 

Fermented  extracts  for  the  manufacture  of  beer do 

Oinger  ale,  cider,  and  sinlilar fermented  beverages do 

Perfumery  containing  alcohol,  imported  or  domestic,  including  cosmetics,  toilet  jKJwders  and 
waters  and  dentrifices,  of  a  retail  price  per  kilo  (including  container)^— 

Not  more  than  10  Tpesos per  kilo. . 

More  than  10  and  not  more  than  50  pesosi do 

More  than  50  pesas  i do 

Playing  cards,  in  packs  not  exceeding  52  cards per  psick. . 


0.80 

.02 
.01 
1.00 


.02 
.05 
.05 

.10 
.20 
1.00 
.05 
.02 
.10 


.50 
2.60 
5.00 

.20 


1  Perfumed  soap  is  not  subject  to  these  duties. 

On  shipments  des'tined  to  points  in  the  interior  of  Colombia  trans- 
ported on  the  navigable  rivers  a  "river  tax"  is  imposed.  The  rates 
now  in  force,  fixed  by  decree  of  December  4,  1914,  are  much  higher 
than  those  previously  applied.  On  most  imports  the  current  rate 
is  S4  per  metric  ton,  and  on  exports,  except  ivory  nuts,  construction 
and  dye  woods,  and  agave,  palms,  and  similar  products  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  or  cordage,  $1.60  per  metric  ton.  The  increased  rate 
affects  some  of  the  principal  exports  of  the  Magdalena  Basin,  such 


330      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

as  coffee,  hides,  Panama  hats,  medicinal  plants,  and  asphalt.  In 
view  of  tne  increase  of  the  river  tax  and  the  fact  that  customs  duties 
in  Colombia  are  collected  on  gross  weight,  shippers  to  the  interior 
of  Colombia  will  see  the  advantage  of  combining  lightness  and 
strength  in  the  packing  of  their  merchandise. 

Upon  the  abolition  of  the  old  salt  monopoly  consumption  duties 
were  imposed  on  salt  produced  by  private  concerns  ranging  from  25 
to  45  cents  per  arroba  (25.85  pounds),  according  to  quality.  Salt 
intended  for  export  was  exempted  from  this  tax. 


TRADE-MARKS  AND  PATENTS. 

The  importance  of  the  trade-mark  in  Colombian  trade  has  been 
pointed  out.  Care  should  be  taken  to  register  trade-marks,  and  this 
should  be  done  before  and  not  after  startmg  to  export.  The  regula- 
tions for  Colombia  are  given  below: 

Office  of  registration. — ^Ministerio  de  Agricultiuti  y  Comercio,  Bogota. 

Duration.' — Twenty  years;  renewable. 

Fees. — Registration  of  mark,  25  Colombian  dollars;  renewal,  30  dollars;  legalization 
and  translation  of  power  of  attorney,  4.50  dollars;  publication  of  application  and  certi- 
ficate, 5  dollars.     (Colombian  dollar=$0.9733  United  States  currency.) 

Formalities  of  registration. — Application  must  be  made  on  stamped  paper  of  20 
centavos,  and  should  state  the  distinctive  mark  adopted,  the  products  to  be  marked, 
the  place  of  manufacture,  and  the  name  and  address  of  the  applicant.  There  should 
also  be  presented  at  least  three  copies  of  the  mark,  each  bearing  a  stamp  of  20  centavos, 
and  an  electrotype  not  over  12  by  12  centimeters,  and  a  receipt  showing  that  the  fee 
has  been  paid.  The  application  must  be  published  three  times  in  the  official  gazette, 
and  after  GO  days  the  mark  may  be  registered.  The  certificate  of  registration  must  also 
be  published  three  times.  If  registration  is  denied,  one-half  the  fee  is  returned.  There 
are  three  classes  of  marks — manufacture,  commerce,  and  agriculture — but  a  mark  regis- 
tered in  one  class  may  not  be  registered  in  another  class  by  a  different  person. 

Registration  should  be  in  the  maker's  own  name  and  not  in  that  of 
the  agent.  So  long  as  an  exclusive  agency  continues  there  are  usually 
no  difficulties,  but  if  the  agency  is  changed  or  different  distributing 
arrangements  made,  the  principal  may  find  that  the  former  agent  has 
it  in  his  power  to  prevent  the  importation  of  the  trade-marked  goods 
except  when  consigned  to  him  and  under  such  terms  as  he  may  dictate. 

In  a  trade-mark  for  the  Colombian  trade  an  outline  of  some  well- 
known  animal  or  bird,  such  as  the  crocodile,  frog,  snake,  or  parrot,  or 
of  a  palm,  canoe,  or  other  object  familiar  in  Colombia,  is  better  than 
any  geometrical  design,  no  matter  how  simple  in  character. 

The  Colombian  laws  guarantee  the  right  of  property  over  patents 
of  inventions.  Every  citizen  or  foreigner  who  invents  or  perfects  a 
machine,  mechanical  device,  combination,  or  a  new  method  or  process 
of  useful  application  in  industry,  art,  or  science,  or  any  product  of 
manufacture  or  industrial  product,  may  obtain  from  the  Government 
a  patent  which  insures  to  the  inventor  the  rights  for  a  term  of  20 
years — either  for  himself  or  for  whoever  mav  represent  his  rights — to 
the  exclusive  manufacture,  sale,  and  use  of  his  invention  or  improve- 
ment. 

Inventors  who  have  already  obtained  patents  in  foreign  countries 
and  who  make  application  for  patent  rights  in  Colombia  are  granted 
the  patent  provided  the  thing  invented  or  discovered  has  not  become 
public.  Wnen  the  patent  has  been  granted  for  the  invention  or  article 
already  patented  in  foreign  countries,  the  privilege  conceded  by  the 
Colombian  Government  lapses  as  soon  as  the  neriod  for  which  the 
foreign  patent  was  obtained  expires. 

The  application  for  patent  rights  must  be  made  to  the  Executive, 
and  in  it  must  be  stated,  in  a  specific  manner,  in  what  the  patent  may 
consist  and  also  the  period  for  which  the  patent  is  asked.  After  the 
patent  is  obtained,  any  forgery  or  any  act  committed  against  the 

331 


332    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

Sroperty  of  the  articles  or  inventions  patented,  constitutes  a  mis- 
emeanor  which  the  law  punishes  accordingly  and  which  gives  the 
patentee  ground  for  claiming  and  obtaining  damages.  (See  Law  No. 
35  of  1869  and  Decree  No.  670  of  1907.) 

The  protection  of  trade-marks  relating  to  commerce,  industry,  and 
agriculture  is  regulated  by  Law  No.  1 10  of  1914.  In  accordance  with 
this  law,  any  person,  a  citizen  or  legal  resident,  a  Colombian  or  for- 
eigner, has  the  right  to  distinguish  his  articles  of  manufacture,  com- 
merce, or  agriculture  by  means  of  a  special  mark  and  to  register  that 
mark.  There  are  two  kinds  of  trade-marks — (1)  "national,"  which 
are  those  that  are  filed  or  registered  in  Colombia  first;  and  (2) 
foreign,  which  are  those  registered  in  Colombia  after  having  been 
registered  in  a  foreign  country  first.     Both  enjoy  the  same  privileges. 

Any  denomination,  mark,  or  sign  that  distinguishes  any  industrial 
or  agricultural  product  may  be  used  as  a  trade-mark;  but  any  sign 
or  marks  similar  to  one  already  registered  or  used  in  trade — and,  m 
general,  any  sign  that  may  tend  to  create  confusion  with  articles 
previously  registered  or  used — can  not  be  granted  the  usual  protection. 

The  ownership  of  a  trade-mark  is  established  by  the  title  issued  by 
the  Government.  The  mark  must  be  used  on  the  article  to  protect  it, 
and  if  it  is  not  so  used  within  two  years  after  being  granted,  or  if  its 
use  is  suspended  during  one  year,  the  right  lapses.  But  in  the  case  of 
a  foreign  trade-mark,  the  immediate  importation  into  Colombia  of 
the  article  protected  is  not  necessary  to  preserve  the  right,  which  will 
not  lapse  provided  the  same  mark  is  in  use  abroad  to  protect  the 
article  within  the  time  specified  above  (two  years). 

The  application  for  registration  of  trade-marks  is  addressed  to  the 
Minister  of  Agriculture  and  Commerce,  on  stamped  paper  and  with  all 
the  specifications  that  distinguish  the  mark  in  question.  Registration 
can  be  made  for  20  years,  and  may  be  renewed  by  application  for  an 
additional  20  years.  ^The  Colombian  law  permits  the  inheritance  and 
the  transfer  of  trade-marks.  After  registration  of  trad  -marks,  the 
owner  has  the  right  to  prosecute  in  the  courts  all  those  who  may  forge 
the  mark  or  infringe  upon  his  interest;  the  prosecution  may  be  for 
damages  in  the  form  of  a  criminal  suit  to  have  the  infringer  punished 
according  to  the  Penal  Code. 

■  Any  act  of  bad  faith  that  may  tend  to  create  confusion  between  the 
articles  of  two  manufacturers,  merchants,  or  agriculturists,  or  that 
may,  without  creating  confusion,  tend  to  discredit  a  rival  in  the 
market,  is  considered  an  act  of  unfair  competition  and  as  such  is 
punishable  by  the  Colombian  laws.  When  evidence  of  unfair 
competition  has  been  established,  the  person  prejudiced  is  entitled  to 
obtam  damages,  which  are  settled  in  the  courts  of  common  law. 


BANKS  AND  BANKING. 

UST  OF  NATIVE  AND  FOREIGN  BANKS. 

A  list  of  the  banks  in  Colombia  is  given  below.  The  capital  given 
is  as  of  1915,  and  later  particulars,  including  recent  increases  in 
capitalization,  etc.,  will  be  found  in  certain  cases  under  the  heading 
"Banks  and  banking"  in  the  accounts  of  the  several  commercial  dis- 
tricts, beginning  on  page  185. 

NATIVE  BANKS. 
[Colombian  dollar=.S0.9733.] 


Name  of  bank. 


Location. 


Capital. 


Banco  Central 

Banco  de  Colombia 

Banco  de  Bogota 

Banco  Hipotecario  (Mortgage  Bank) 

Banco  de  Sucre 

Banco  Aleman-Antioqueno  (Colombian  and  German) . 

Banco  Republicano 

Banco  de  Bolivar 

Banco  Uni6n 

Banco  de  Cartagena 

Banco  Comercial 

Cr^dito  Mercantil 

Banco  de  Ruiz 

Banco  de  Caldas 

Banco  de  Oriente 

Banco  de  Sonson 

Banco  de  Boyaea 

Banco  de  Giraldo  y  Garces 

Banco  de  Popayan 

Banco  del  Sur 

Banco  de  Mutualidad 

Banco  Dugand  (Colombian  and  French) 

Banco  de  Cucuta  (Colombian  and  German) 


Bogota 

do 

do 

do 

Medellin 

do 

do 

Cartagena 

do 

do 

Barranquilla 

do 

Manizales 

do 

Rio  Negro 

Sonson,  Antioquia. 

Tunia 

CaU 

Popayan 

Paste 

Bucaramanga 

Barranquilla 

Cucuta 


Cohmbian 

dollars. 

2,300,000 
"80,000 
500,000 
600,000 

1,000,000 
750.000 
200,000 
500,000 
200,000 
100,000 
180,000 
250,000 
140,000 
400,000 
100,000 
50,000 
40,000 
Private. 
55,000 
500,000 
500,000 

2,000,000 
150,000 


Note. — Nearly  all  of  the  above-listed  native  banks  increased  tljeir  capitalization  during  1919.  For  more 
detailed  statements  of  balances,  etc.,  see  "Banks  and  banking  '  m  the  several  district  sections  (beguining 
on  p.  185). 

FOREIGN  BANKS  IN  COLOMBIA. 


Name  of  bank. 


Location  of  branches. 


International  Banking  Corporation  (National  City  Bank 
of  New  York). 

National  City  Bank  of  New  York 


Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas  (Mercantile  (^"orseas 
Corporation). 


American  Foreign  Banking  Corporation,  New  York 

All-America  Banking  Corporation  (Royal  Bank  of  Can- 
ada). 
Commercial  Bank  of  Spanish  America 


Medellin . 


[Bogota 

'Barranquilla.. 

Bogot  a 

Barranquilla . . 

Cartagena 

Medellin 

Manizales 

Aj-menia 

Call 

Girardot 

Honda 

Bucaramanga. 

Call 

Cartagena 


Medell'n. 


Year  ef?- 
tablished. 


1912 

1920 
1920 
1919 
1918 
1918 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1919 
1918 

1912 


333 


334    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

COMMERCUL  EFFECT  OF  AMERICAN  BRANCH  BANKS  IN  COLOMBIA. 

Progress  in  the  establishment  of  American  branch  banks  through- 
out Latin  America  has  been  continuous  during  the  past  few  years, 
and  further  developments  along  these  lines  are  desirable  in  order  that 
additional  accommodation  to  trade  may  be  furnished  and  existing 
exchange  relations  enlarged.  In  three  ways  the  American  foreign 
banks  are  laying  the  foundation  for  the  expansion  and  financing  of 
the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States — (1)  by  the  direct  establish- 
ment of  branches,  (2)  b^  the  willingness  of  the  banking  community 
to  undertake  and  organize  foreign  banking  corporations,  and  (3)  by 
the  creation  of  discount  companies  dealing  in  paper  growing  out  of 
the  foreign  business.  Without  the  aid  of  tne  branch  banks  in 
Colombia  and  the  system  of  discounts  at  home,  it  would  be  impossible 
for  exporters  to  finance  the  en  tire  volume  of  trade  now  on  hand,  and  the 
branch  banks  are  also  helping  their  local  merchants  with  additional 
commercial  loans  and  information  and  are  materially  assisting  them 
in  enlarging  their  business — all  these  activities  being  of  direct  oenefit 
to  American  foreign  trade.  Also,  one  of  the  most  valuable  services 
rendered  by  these  branches  to  American  exporters  is  in  the  furnish- 
ing of  more  and  more  accurate  credit  information,  many  large  Amer- 
ican exporters  having  reported  this  service  as  being  extremely 
helpful  and  entirely  adequate.  In  every  country — and  Colombia  is 
no  exception  to  the  rule — credit  forms  the  basis  of  all  commercial 
transactions,  and  on  this  foundation  is  built  the  prosperity  of  the 
coimtry. 

FORMER  BANKING  CONDITIONS  AND  RECENT  PROGRESS. 

The  financial  history  of  Colombia  has  already  been  summarized 
under  "National  finances"  (p.  55).  The  history  of  banking  in 
Colombia  has  been  rather  a  stormy  one  and  involved  in  the  several 
domestic  disturbances  and  financial  crises.  Great  strides  have  been 
made  during  the  past  15  years  of  domestic  peace  and  prosperity;  the 
commerce  of  the  country  has  increased  rapidly,  doubling  since  1906, 
and  the  banks  of  the  country  have  taken  their  part  in  this  advance 
and  received  their  share  of  the  benefits.  During  1919  the  capitali- 
zation of  nearly  all  the  native  banks  was  heavily  increased,  large 
dividends  were  paid  to  stockholders,   and  the  reserve  funds  were 

1 T1 P  T'f^  fl  **1  P  O 

BANKING  LAWS  OF  COLOMBIA. 

The  issuance  of  paper  money  is  exclusivelv  a  Government  function 
(since  1887),  so  that  the  only  banks  allowed  by  law  are  banks  of  de- 
posit and  discount  and  mortgage  banks. 

The  laws  governing  banks  of  deposit  and  discount  are  No.  57  and 
No.  153  of  1887  and  No.  77  of  1890.  In  accordance  with  the  nro- 
visions  of  these  laws  and  of  article  120  of  the  Constitution,  the  Gov- 
ernment has  the  right  of  inspection  of  all  credit  establishments. 
Before  establishing  such  a  bank  it  is  necessary  to  obtain  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  Government  (see  art.  54,  Law  No.  57  of  1887).  Such 
institutions  may  fix  their  own  rates  of  intere^,  discounts,  and  com- 
missions, and  change  the  same  at  will  provided  they  give  notice  in 
the  newspapers  90  days  in  advance  of  the  date  when  such  change  of 
rates  is  to  become  effective.     These  banks  are  also  authorized  to  loan 


BANKS   AND  BANKING.  336 

money  on  real  estate.  They  are  obliged  to  keep  a  cash  reserve 
amounting  to  at  least  20  per  cent  of  the  value  of  tneir  deposits  and 
accounts  current  (see  arts.  1  to  4  of  law  No.  77  of  1890). 

Mortgage  banks  are  subject  to  law  No.  24  of  April  17,  1905.  This 
law  was  enacted  for  the  exclusive  purpose  of  encouraging  the  estab- 
lishment of  mortgage  banks  in  the  country.  In  accordance  with  the 
provisions  of  this  law,  mortgage  banks  may  be  established  purely  as 
such,  but  the  banks  of  deposit  may  also  establish  mortgage  oranches 
or  departments.  In  either  case  they  are  entitled  to  the  privilege  of 
issuing  mortgage  certificates  ("cedulas  hipotecarias ")  and  to  loan 
money  at  long  terms,  the  loans  to  be  paid  in  installments,  or  annual 
payments  with  which  the  certiiScates  issued  are  amortized — both 
prmcipal  and  interest. 

In  order  to  establish  a  mortgage  bank,  it  is  necessarv  to  make  a  con- 
tract with  the  Government  whereby  the  founder  oi  the  bank  shall 
obligate  himself: 

(1)  To  present  to  the  Government  an  authentic  copy  of  the  by-laws 
and  of  any  amendments  made  thereto. 

(2)  To  advise  the  Government  of  all  appointments  of  officers  of  the 
bank. 

(3)  To  publish  a  monthly  statement  or  report,  being  an  authentic 
copy  taken  from  the  books. 

(4)  To  allow  the  Government  examiners  access  to  the  books  once  a 
month,  at  least,  in  order  to  ascertain  that  mortgage  certificates  have 
not  been  issued  in  excess  of  the  value  of  the  mortgage  loans. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Government  grants  to  the  mortgage  banks: 

(a)  The  right  to  issue  mortgage  certificates  or  credit  notes  to  pay, 
payable  to  the  bearer  ("cedulas  hipotecarias")- 

(b)  The  validity  in  all  courts  of  law  of  said  certificates,  even  when 
not  issued  on  official  stamped  paper,  and  their  exemption  from  the 
revenue  stamp  tax. 

(c)  A  military  or  police  squad  for  protection  in  case  of  need,  if  asked 
for  by  the  president  of  the  bank,  at  his  discretion. 

(d)  That  in  all  judgments  in  favor  of  the  bank  arising  from  debts 
guaranteed  by  special  mortgage,  the  only  exceptions  admitted  are  the 
pleas  that  the  payment  was  duly  effected  or  that  there  is  an  error  in 
the  account.  The  former  plea  can  be  proved  only  by  the  presentation 
of  the  voucher  attesting  the  payment  to  have  been  made. 

(f)  That  in  case  of  creditors'  meetings,  the  judgments  in  favor  of 
the  mortgage  banks  shall  be  kept  out  as  preferential  claims  and  the 
other  creditors  shall  be  paid  pro  rata  out  of  the  balance  left  in  excess 
of  the  value  of  the  properties  mortgaged  to  the  bank,  once  the  bank 
has  been  paid  in  full  (i.  e.,  principal,  interest,  and  costs). 

Besides  the  foregoing  advantages,  it  is  also  specijfied  that  no  matter 
where  the  real  estate  be  located,  legal  proceedings  may  be  instituted 
and  carried  out  at  the  place  where  the  bank  is  domiciled. 

Mortgage  banks  may  handle  loans  and  are  also  authorized :  To 
make  loans  on  special  mortgages;  to  accept  annuities  for  the  consti- 
tution of  capital  funds  in  favor  of  the  depositors;  to  accept  deposits 
for  the  estaolishment  of  annuities  in  favor  of  depositors;  to  issue 
bonds  or  notes  to  bearer  or  to  persons  named,  guaranteed  by  the 
mortgage  titles  obtained  by  the  bank;  to  buy,  sell,  and  lease  real 
estate  properties  which  the  bank  may  receive  in  payment  of  its  claims. 


336     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

The  sinking  fund  of  a  mortgage  bank  must  be  at  least  10  per  cent 
of  the  amount  of  the  profits  declared  as  dividends  to  the  stoclchoklers 
of  record.  The  rate  of  interest,  the  commissions,  the  amount  of 
amortization,  and  the  time  of  loans  are  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
Dank's  officers;  but  the  total  value  of  the  bonds  or  notes  in  circula- 
tion just  represents  the  total  value  or  amount  of  the  mortgage  loans — 
that  is,  the  effective  volume  of  its  transactions  and  the  capital.  The 
maximum  face  value  of  each  bond  or  mortgage  note  can  not  exceed 
100  Colombian  gold  dollars. 

The  concession  for  the  bank  may  run  from  40  to  100  years,  and,  the 
contract  once  legalized,  the  Government  is  not  supposed  to  change  the 
terms  of  the  concession;  but  in  case  it  does  so,  the  bank  in  the  case  is 
entitled  to  damages  in  the  amount  of  one-half  of  its  capital. 

According  to  article  54  of  Law  No.  57  of  1887,  "banks  already  es- 
tablished are  entitled  to  continue  as  authorized,  under  the  conditions 
imposed  by  the  law.  In  order  to  establish  new  banks  the  authoriza- 
tion of  the  Government  is  necessary."  (See  "  Commercial  Laws  of 
the  World,"  Vol.  II,  pp.  216  and  184.) 

In  1916  the  Government  appointed  a  committee  to  investigate  and 
report  on  savings  banks  for  the  Republic.  The  Compania  Colom- 
biana  de  Mutualidad  of  Bucaramanga  is  the  first  mutual  savings, 
building,  and  loan  bank  of  the  country  (see  p.  288). 

The  report  of  the  Minister  of  Hacienda  for  1916  contained  the  rec- 
ommendation that  the  Canadian  system  of  banking  be  adopted  for 
Colombia. 

OPPORTUNITY  FOR  NEW  BANK  AT  TUMACO. 

All  American  branch  banks  established  in  Colombia  reported  a  very 
satisfactory  business  for  191Q,  and  the  intention  of  openmg  additional 
branches  in  the  near  future  is  stated. 

The  port  of  Tumaco  is  badly  in  need  of  a  bank.  At  present  it  is 
dependent  upon  Cali,  and  coastwise  steamer  service  does  not  provide 
sumciently  rapid  communication  for  business  needs.  Tumaco  has  a 
foreign  trade  of  more  than  $2,000,000  annually,  and  this  trade  is  in- 
creasing as  the  traffic  from  the  Pasto  region  is  being  diverted  from 
Ecuador  to  the  Patia  River  and  Tumaco. 


PRACTICE  OF  HANDLING  BILLS  OF  EXCHANGE  WITH 

COLOMBU/ 

Formerly  most  exports  from  Colombia  to  the  United  States  were 
financed  by  30,  60,  and  90  day  drafts  drawn  by  the  exporter  (by- 
arrangement  with  the  American  consignee),  generally  for  two-thirds 
of  the  market  value  of  the  merchandise  at  time  of  shipment,  but  dur- 
ing recent  years  American  banks  that  have  been  established  in 
Colombia  have  handled  a  growing  proportion  of  the  export  business 
to  the  United  States.  The  producer  turns  over  his  coffee  or  hides  to 
the  bank  for  export,  the  bank  recognizes  a  credit  in  his  favor  for  two- 
thirds  of  the  market  value,  and  when  the  goods  are  sold  credits  him 
with  the  balance,  less  expenses,  interest,  commission,  and  exchange. 
The  terms  on  which  these  credits  are  generally  arranged,  both  locally 
and  in  New  York,  are  2^  per  cent  commission  plus  interest,  the  latter 
item  being  12  per  cent  for  local  transactions. 

More  than  80  per  cent  of  Colombia's  exports  go  to  the  United  States; 
cons(iquently  foreign  exchange  business  is  much  ^eater  with  this 
country  than  with  Europe,  and  most  exporters'  bills  are  drawn  in 
American  currency.  Previous  to  the  entry  of  the  United  States 
into  the  war  the  rates  of  exchange  on  New  York  were  for  several 
years  close  to  par — i.  e.,  $1.03  plus,  Colombian,  was  equal  to  $1 
United  States  currency,  the  Colombian  dollar  being  exactly  one-fifth 
of  the  English  pound  sterling.  In  1917  rates  varied  from  103  to 
108.  In  1918  tney  fell  as  low  as  80  on  account  of  the  impossibility 
of  obtaining  gold  or  merchandise  from  the  United  States  to  liquidate 
trade  balances.  During  1919  they  gradually  went  from  90  up  to  98. 
Bills  on  Europe  generally  follow  New  York  exchange  quotations, 
merely  local  factors  rarely  having  any  influence. 

Bills  on  the  United  States  are  all  against  New  York  and  are 
practically  all  negotiated  through  banks  m  Barranquilla.  They  are 
principally  drawn  from  Barranquilla,  Bogota,  and  Medellin.  Ameri- 
can exchange  is  quoted  daily  by  all  the  banks,  most  of  which  are  in 
constant  cable  communication  with  New  York.  Sometimes  the  rates 
are  published  in  the  daily  newspapers  or  placed  on  bulletin  boards 
in  the  banking  office.  They  are  generally  based  on  supply  and  de- 
mand; but  other  factors,  such  as  exchange  gambling,  important 
political  news,  shipping  facilities,  and  gold  shipments  frequently 
intervene  to  raise  or  lower  the  market  a  few  points.  On  account  of 
slow  transportation  service,  rates  sometimes  vary  as  much  as  2| 
per  cent  between  different  cities  of  the  country.  New  York  dis- 
count rates  are  not  quoted,  local  discount  rates  governing  all  trans- 
actions. These  rates  are  generally  one-half  of  1  per  cent  plus  regu- 
lar interest  for  the  usance  at  the  rate  of  1  per  cent  per  month. 

The  usual  commission  in  Barranquilla  for  collecting  all  local  items, 
either  with  or  without  documents,  is  one-half  of  1  per  cent.  It  costs 
local  banks  from  1  to  14  per  cent  to  collect  items  on  interior  points, 
and  in  such  cases  this  charge  is  added  to  their  commission. 

1  This  section  is  by  Consul  C.  E.  Guyant,  of  Barranquilla. 

37558°— 21 22  337 


838    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

The  stamp  tax  provided  by  law  for  drafts  is  4  cents  per  $100,  but 
this  is  generally  disregarded.  In  the  rare  instances  in  which  stamps 
are  used  the  drawee  is  supposed  to  pay  the  tax,  but  when  he  objects — 
as  he  generally  does — the  Dank  has  to  pay  it.  It  is  probably  for  this 
reason  that  most  paper  bears  no  stamps. 

Protest  charges  are  approximately  $3  for  each  protest — a  charge 
which  the  drawee  has  to  assume  if  he  later  pays  the  draft.  Protests 
are  very  seldom  made,  and  local  banks,  in  taking  items  for  acceptance 
and  collection,  reserve  the  ri^ht  to  protest  or  not  as  they  see  fit, 
without  responsibility  on  their  part.  Items  may  be  protested  for 
failure  either  to  accept  or  to  pay,  and  the  protest  must  be  made  within 
24  hours  after  the  item  is  due  and  before  3  p.  m.  It  may  be  made 
before  maturity  in  case  of  failure  or  bankruptcy.  All  protests  must 
be  made  before  a  notary  public  and  two  witnesses.  The  holder  of  a 
protested  item  is  entitled  to  legal  interest  from  date  of  protest  until 
paid.     (Colombian  Commercial  Code,  arts.  855-893.) 

Merchants  most  generally  object  to  paying  collection  charges  on 
items  drawn  on  them,  though  they  naturally  pay  interest  on  time 
drafts  when  so  specified.  It  is  customary  for  the  drawer  to  stand 
the  expense  of  collection,  and  it  is  suggested  that,  when  it  is  desired 
that  the  importer  pay  these  charges,  there  be  inserted  on  the  face 
of  the  draft  the  phrase  ''With  all  oanking  charges." 

Barranquilla  banks  do  not  guarantee  the  payment  of  drafts  accepted 
by  approved  firms. 

If  tne  shipping  papers  contain  the  drawee's  name  as  consignee 
there  is  no  advantage  in  drawing  on  a  firm  in  Colombia  with  docu- 
ments attached  to  be  delivered  on  acceptance.  When  merchandise 
arrives  at  the  port  it  is  delivered  to  the  customhouse  by  the  trans- 
portation company,  and  bills  of  lading  are  not  rec^uired  by  the  cus- 
toms officials  as  a  condition  of  delivery  to  consignee.  The  only 
document  required  to  obtain  the  shipment  is  the  Colombian  con- 
sular invoice,  and  the  consignee  need  not  obtain  the  original  invoice 
attached  to  the  draft  held  by  the  bank,  but  may  demand  a  copy  of 
the  invoice  received  direct  by  the  customhouse  from  the  Colombian 
consul,  which  is  issued  to  him  on  the  payment  of  a  small  stamp  fee 
and  which  he  can  use  for  making  the  regular  customs  entry.  This 
procedure  is  not  usual,  but  it  has  been  resorted  to,  and  unless  a 
firm's  credit  is  known  to  be  good  it  is  better  to  consign  the  merchan- 
dise to  the  bank  with  instructions  to  indorse  the  consular  invoice  to 
the  purchaser  upon  his  accepting  the  draft. 


INSURANCE. 

European  houses  give  close  attention  to  the  matter  of  insurance 
and  to  the  adjustment  of  claims  for  the  account  of  clients,  and  they 
take  all  the  necessary  steps  to  secure  payment,  usually  making  no 
charg^e  for  this  valuable  service.  American  houses  have  shown  less 
interest  in  the  matter,  and  European  houses  are  reported  to  be  much 
more  prompt  and  exact  in  the  settlement  of  claims.  American  ex- 
porters have  complained  in  the  past  that  rates  were  too  high,  but 
this  is  on  account  of  the  fact  that  ocean  freights,  customs  duties, 
and  inland  transportation  in  Colombia  are  such  that  at  times  the 
first  cost  of  the  goods  is  doubled,  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  hard- 
ware and  machinery  shipments,  and  all  these  elements  have  to  be 
covered  by  insurance. 

There  are  two  Colombian  companies,  the  Compania  Colombiana 
de  Seguros,  with  a  capital  of  2,000,000  Colombian  dollars,  and  the 
Compania  General  de  Seguros,  with  a  capital  of  300,000  dollars,  both 
with  head  offices  in  Bogota  and  maintaining  agencies  in  all  the  sea- 
ports and  principal  cities  of  the  country.  These  companies  do  a 
feneral  insurance  business,  including  fu'e,  marine  (river-traffic),' pil- 
erage,  loss-in-transit,  partial-damage,  etc.,  and  they  have  been  very 
successful  in  Colombia,  their  activities  filling  a  long-felt  want  in  the 
commerce  of  the  country,  more  especially  in  covering  loss  in  ware- 
house, by  theft  (pilferage),  and  during  inland  transportation.  For- 
warding agents  at  the  seaports  (ports  of  entry)  should  be  instructed 
to  insure  in  these  companies  goods  ffir  inland  transportation,  when- 
ever they  are  not  covered  through  to  destination  from  point  of  ship- 
ment, by  the  exporters.  This  meets  with  the  universal  approval  of 
the  Colombian  merchants,  who  are  beginning  to  use  this  service,  more 
and  more. 

During  1919  a  combination  of  20  of  the  largest  American  insurance 
companies,  formed  in  New  York  to  engage  in  foreign  fire  and  marine 
insurance  and  known  as  the  American  Association  of  Foreign  Insur- 
ance, investigated  insurance  conditions  m  Colombia,  with  the  result 
that  agencies  have  been  recommended  for  the  country.  It  is  under- 
stood that  policies  will  cover  all  risks  right  through  from  point  of 
shipment  in  the  United  States  to  destination  in  Colombia.  This 
will  mean  a  great  help  to  trade  in  general. 

Following  is  an  outline  of  the  procedure  for  securing  admission 
into  Colombia  by  foreign  insurance  companies : 

File  one  copy  of  articles  of  incorporation  in  Spanish,  the  translation  being  verified 
.by  a  notary  whose  si^ature  is  authenticated  by  the  Colombian  consul  in  New  York 
(or  other  place  of  residence  of  company).  This  document  is  filed  with  the  Minister 
of  Foreign  Relations  at  Bogota. 

Make  request  to  President  of  Colombia  for  permit  to  operate  in  the  Republic  and 
publish  extracts  of  articles  of  incorporation  which  may  be  of  interest  to  the  citizens 
of  Colombia,  in  the  Diario  Oficial  and  departmental  papers. 

The  axtual  procedure  is  to  send  a  Spanish  translation  of  the  articles  of  incorporation 
to  a  Bogota  attorney  and  have  him  take  the  necessary  action.  Legal  fees  and  cost  of 
publication  are  between  $150  and  $200  for  each  company.    The  company  can  begin 

339 


340     COLOMBIA:   A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

writing  business  as  soon  as  the  papers  are  filed  with  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations 
and  need  not  wait  for  the  granting  of  the  permit. 

Each  agent  must  have  a  power  of  attorney  similar  to  that  granted  by  the  rommercial 
Union  Insurance  Co.  This  power  of  attorney  is  registered  at  the  capital  at  a  very 
small  cost,  and  the  cost  of  the  appointment  ot  the  original  agents  can  be  included  in 
the  sum  mentioned  in  the  third  paragraph. 

The  translation  of  the  power  of  attorney  miist  be  verified  and  authenticated  in  the 
same  way  as  the  translation  of  the  articles  of  incorporation.  One  copy  only  is  neces- 
sarv  for  filing  with  notary  in  Colombia,  a  duplicate  copy  being  signed  by  the  agent 
and  returned  to  the  company.  Certified  copies  of  this  power  of  attorney  are  fumidied 
the  agent  by  the  Colombian  Government  (notarj^)  whenever  he  needs  them. 


COMMERCIAL  PRACTICES  AND  REQUIREMENTS. 

AGENCIES. 

In  all  the  commercial  centers  there  are  foreigners  and  native  Co- 
lombians who  maintain  manufacturers'  agencies.  A  number  of  these 
agencies  have  been  long  established,  handling  a  few  special  non- 
competitive lines  (principally  European  before  the  war),  and  they 
have  rendered  a  very  important  and  valuable  service  in  acting  as  the 
direct  representatives  in  their  districts  of  the  manufacturers  or  job- 
bers. Possibly  their  greatest  service  has  consisted  in  their  possession 
of  commercial  information,  credit  ratings,  and  data  on  market  con- 
ditions, and  in  their  general  knowledge  of  and  personal  relations  with 
their  clientele.  Prior  to  the  war  a  number  of  American  lines  and 
specialties  were  handled  by  these  agents  (not  a  few  of  them  Germans). 
Another  important  duty  of  the  resident  agent  is  that  of  inspecting 
damaged  or  disputed  shipments  of  goods  and  acting  as  an  arbitrator 
between  the  buyer  and  the  seller.  Colombian  importers  like  to 
know  that  there  is,  in  their  own  city,  a  personal  representative  of 
the  firm  with  which  they  place  large  orders  for  goods. 

Personality  in  business  counts  for  a  great  deal  more  in  Colombia 
than  in  the  United  States,  and  an  agent  who  is  well  liked  personally 
("simp^tico")  will  usually  get  the  most  orders,  even  in  tne  face  of 
lower  prices  and  better  terms  from  competitors. 

When  war  conditions  gave  the  bulk  of  Colombia's  trade  to  the 
United  States  and  old  relations  with  Europe  w^ere  disrupted  to  a  very 
great  degree,  many  agents  solicited  representations  of  American  lines. 
Many  times  American  exporters  made  the  mistake  of  appointing  one 
agent  to  cover  the  entire  country,  or  gave  their  agency  to  a  repre- 
sentative who  was  already  handling  a  number  of  lines  and  was  not 
in  a  position  to  devote  enough  of  his  time  individually  to  any  one 
of  them  to  secure  success.  Agents  for  American  houses  also  com- 
plained that  they  were  not  given  proper  attention  by  the  home  office, 
that  samples  were  not  sent  them,  tnat  advertising  allowances  were 
entirely  lacking  or  were  too  small,  and  that  cooperation  was  lacking 
in  all  respects. 

One  of  the  most  important  services  rendered  by  American  salesmen 
in  Colombia  is  that  of  the  careful  selection  of  agents,  one  for  each 
commercial  district.  The  appointment  of  agents  by  correspondence 
is,  as  a  rule,  very  unsatisfactory,  unless  the  applicant  is  able  to  present 
unquestionable  proof  of  his  experience,  ability,  rating,  and  integrity. 
As  an  example  of  this  fact,  one  may  cite  the  case  of  an  American 
house  exporting  a  large  line  of  special  hardware  and  tools,  whose 
agent  in  Bogota  was  a  young  Colombian  of  wealthy  and  politically 
influential  family.  This  man  was  employed  during  the  day  in  the 
Government  offices,  possessed  no  business  experience  whatever,  and 
had  the  agency  only  as  a  pastime  outside  of  office  hours. 

Foreign  trading  companies  desiring  to  maintain  resident  represen- 
tation in  Colombia  at  one  or  more  points  are  not  required  to  incor- 

341 


342     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


F. 


orate  by  and  under  the  laws  of  Colombia,  the  procedure  being  as 
bllows : 

It  is  necessary  to  file  one  copy  of  the  articles  of  incorporation,  in 
Spanish,  with  the  translation  verified  by  a  notarj  whose  signature  is 
authenticated  by  the  Colombian  consul  general  m  New  York  (or  by 
the  Colombian  consul  in  other  place  of  residence  of  the  company), 
with  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations  in  Bogota,  The  actual  pro- 
cedure is  to  send  a  Spanish  translation  of  the  articles  of  incorporation 
to  an  attorney  of  Bogota  and  have  him  take  the  necessary  action  and 
legal  steps.  Legal  fees  and  cost  of  publication  are  between  $150  and 
$200  for  each  company.  The  company  can  begin  business  as  soon 
as  the  papers  are  filed  and  need  not  wait  for  the  permit  to  be  issued 
by  the  Minister  of  Foreign  Relations. 

Resident  agents  must  have  a  power  of  attorney  similar  to  that 
granted  to  the  main  office  in  the  country.  Each  of  these  powers  of 
attorney  can  be  registered  at  the  capital  at  a  very  small  cost,  and 
the  cost  of  the  appointment  of  the  original  agents  can  be  included  in 
the  sum  mentioned. 

Translations  of  the  power  of  attorney  must  be  verified  and  authen- 
ticated in  the  same  way  as  the  translation  of  the  articles  of  incorpora- 
tion. One  copy  only  is  necessary  for  filing  with  the  notary  in  Colom- 
bia, a  duplicate  copy  being  signed  by  the  agent  and  returned  to  the 
company.  Certified  copies  ot  this  power  of  attorney  are  furnished 
to  the  agent  by  the  Colombian  Government  (that  is,  by  the  notary), 
whenever  he  may  need  them  for  the  purpose  of  representation  in 
court  or  for  the  appointment  of  subagents,  etc. 

For  an  account  of  the  procedure  necessary  in  the  case  of  insurance 
companies  and  banks,  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the  instructions 
on  page 339,  under  the  heading  "Insurance." 

IMPORTANCE  OF  EXPORT  COMMISSION  HOUSES  IN  COLOMBIAN 

TRADE. 

With  the  exception  of  textiles,  which  form  the  chief  line  of  impor- 
tation into  Colombia  and  which  are  handled  principally  by  the 
large  jobbing  houses  dealing  directly  with  the  larger  and  long-estab- 
lished importers  of  Colombia,  the  great  bulk  of  the  trade  with  Colom- 
bia is  handled  by  commission  houses  established  in  New  York  and 
London  (and,  before  the  war,  in  Hamburg).  The  principal  reason 
for  this  lies  in  the  "general-store"  character  of  the  business  of 
Colombia — merchants  bein^  at  the  same  time  wholesale  importers, 
exporters  of  the  products  oi  the  country,  wholesalers  to  the  interior, 
and  retail  merchants,  all  under  one  roof.     The  bulk  of  business  in  a 

§iven  class  of  merchandise,  with  the  exception  of  hardware  and 
rugs  and  medicines,  was  normally  too  small  to  allow  of  specializa- 
tion in  any  one  line  or  even  in  several  lines.  The  importer  of  textiles 
as  a  main  line  also  bought  machetes,  barbed  wire,  paper  products, 
women's  and  men's  wear,  chemicals,  cement,  steel  ana  iron  products, 
furniture,  etc.  Under  these  conditions,  and  in  the  absence  of  direct 
knowledge  of  the  foreign  markets  or  direct  connection  with  manu- 
facturers, the  easiest  way  was  to  place  all  orders  in  the  hands  of  one 
or  two  commission  houses,  which  also  handled  exports  of  hides, 
coffee,  etc.,  and  ran  a  current  account  with  the  Colombian  merchant. 
This  arrangement  also  suited  the  manufacturer  who  did  not  know 
the  country  well  and  had  no  credit  information.     By  selling  to  the 


COMMERCIAL   PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  343 

commission  house,  which  financed  all  shipments,  he  eliminated  all 
sales  work  and  credits  from  his  Colombian  business. 

Commission  houses  handle  their  trade  (1)  through  direct  corre- 
spondence (the  parties  being  known  to  each  other  previously),  (2) 
through  resident  agents,  or  (3)  in  many  cases,  such  as  those  of  the 
Colombian  firms  cited  above,  through  branch  offices  located  in  the 
principal  commercial  centers — the  last-mentioned  method  being 
productive  of  the  best  results. 

DIRECT  FACTORY  REPRESENTATION. 

There  is  one  notable  exception  to  the  general  employment  of 
commission  houses  as  intermediaries — that  of  a  large  American 
sewing-machine  company  which  has  established  offices  or  agencies 
in  all  the  larger  cities  and  towns  of  the  country,  from  which  the 
entire  interior  is  covered  by  salesmen.  Sales  of  machines  are  made 
also  on  the  installment  plan.  This  company  formerly  sold  machines 
at  wholesale  to  the  larger  hardware  dealers  and  principal  importers 
of  the  commercial  centers. 

Recently,  also,  a  large  Colombian  firm  with  headquarters  in 
Cartagena  (Mogollon  y  Cla.)  has  established  branch  stores  in  all  the 
principal  cities  of  the  country  and  is  dealing  in  many  American  spe- 
cialties, such  as  phono^aphs,  office  furniture  and  fixtures,  type- 
writers, files,  and  electrical  goods,  while  the  principal  line  is  paper 
and  paper  products,  stationery,  and  office  supplies.  This  firm  buys 
directly  from  manufacturers  or  jobbers  controlling  the  lines  handled, 
and  has  obtained  many  exclusive  agencies  for  these  specialties, 
selling  the  country  at  wholesale  also. 

A  very  large  American  firm,  acting  as  the  exporting  medium  for  a 
number  of  allied  factories  making  paper  and  paper  products,  printing 
machinery,  and  supplies,  maintams  direct  agencies  in  the  country. 

Ordinary  electrical  goods  are  handled  by  general  importers,  who 
carry  fixtures  and  the  like,  while  electrical  and  other  machinery  is 
handled  by  several  large  firms  that  specialize  in  engineering  work  oi  all 
kinds,  having  exclusive  agencies  for  the  products  of  the  factories 
represented. 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS  AFFECTING  TRADE  METHODS. 

It  is  felt  that  no  detailed  discussion  of  the  relative  merits  and  func- 
tions of  the  export  commission  houses,  jobbers,  agents,  etc.,  is  neces- 
sary here,  since  this  has  all  been  covered  in  a  very  thorough  manner 
in  Miscellaneous  Series  No.  81 ,  "Selling  in  Foreign  Markets,  published 
by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

It  has  beten  shown  how  the  bulk  of  Colombia's  trade,  both  export 
and  import,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  commission  houses.  Recently 
the  country  was  visited  by  an  increased  number  of  American  sales- 
men, a  few  of  them  representing  large  factories  of  specialties  such  as 
cork  and  rubber  products,  and  others  representing  groups  of  manu- 
facturers producmg  such  articles  as  shoes,  jewelry,  etc.;  and  all 
reported  excellent  business,  especially  during  the  middle  and  latter 
half  of  the  year  1919.  Colombian  merchants  will  nearly  always  place 
a  small  order  with  a  new  house,  to  try  it  out,  and,  if  the  firm  is  wise,  it 
will  pay  the  most  strict  attention  to  that  order  and  see  that  every- 


344     COLOMBIA:   a   commercial,  and  industrial   fiEANDBOOK. 

thing  is  right,  regardless  of  the  expense  involved,  since  such  orders 
are  the  best  means  of  securing  repeat  l)usiness. 

Plans  were  also  under  way  for  the  establishment  of  branch  stores 
and  agencies  of  American  export  houses  representing  groups  of  manu- 
facturers of  allied  and  non-competitive  lines,  operating  under  the 
new  Webb  law. 

An  important  factor  in  cementing  trade  relations  with  the  United 
States  was  the  increasing  number  of  visits  by  Colombian  merchants 
to  the  United  States  after  the  war.  New  business  friendships  were 
made  and  new  trade  relations  initiated  which  will  do  more  than  any- 
thing else  to  promote  trade  in  the  future.  New  lines  of  American 
goods  were  discovered  and  investigated  and  new  trade  channels 
opened.  In  the  past,  while  the  United  States  has  for  a  long  time 
been  the  chief  buyer  of  Colombian  exports  of  coffee,  hides,  and  other 
products,  and  also  a  large  purveyor  of  goods  to  Colombia,  trade  bal- 
ances in  New  York  were  used,  to  a  very  great  extent,  to  purchase 
European  merchandise — textiles  in  England,  fancy  goods  in  France, 
and  hardware  and  machinery  in  Germany.  The  Colombians  liked 
the  attention  given  them  bv  European  exporters;  they  liked  the 
carefully  cultivated  personal  relations,  the  methodical  system  of 
billing,  listing,  etc.,  the  liberal  credit  terms  granted,  and  the  proper 

f)acking  methods  emploj^ed,  and  they  accuse  American  exporters  of 
ack  of  attention  to  detail,  unfamiliarity  with  Colombian  conditions, 
and  bad  packing — this  last  matter  having  been  the  cause  of  more 
trade  disputes  than  any  other  shortcommg.  It  must  be  confessed 
that,  while  forced  by  circumstances  to  trade  with  the  United  States 
during  the  war  in  greater  volume  than  ever  before,  at  the  close  of 
hostilities  many  large  importers  looked  forward  to  renewing  their 
old  relations  with  Europe,  and  the  heavy  buying  in  the  United  States 
after  Mfty,  1919,  when  the  Colombian  market  reacted  on  account  of 
the  coffee  situation,  was  due  more  to  the  failure  of  Europe  to  readjust 
itself  economically  than  to  better  methods  on  the  part  of  American 
manufacturers    and   exporters. 

The  Colombian  merchant  has,  for  years,  been  accustomed  to  make 
careful  comparison  between  European  and  American  markets,  to 
figure  exchange  very^  closelv,  and  to  take  care  of  a  keen  competition 
locally;  and  these  points  will  have  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  future 
of  trade  with  Colombia. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  TRADE  WITH  UNITED  STATES— OUTLOOK  FOR 

FUTURE. 

Setting  aside  abnormal  conditions,  the  future  of  trade  with  Colom- 
bia depends  upon  a  number  of  important  features. 

ADVANTAGE  OF  PROXIMITY. 

The  great  advantage  lies  in  the  proximity  of  the  two  countries. 
An  order  placed,  by  mail,  with  a  European  house  takes,  from  the  date 
of  order  to  the  final  receipt  of  the  goods,  six  months  on  an  average. 
A  similar  order  placed  in  the  United  States  involves  only  three  to 
six  weeks'  time.  The  Colombian  importer  is  fully  aware  of  this  ad- 
vantage, and  consequently  there  are  many  special  lines,  which  were 
long  purchased  in  Europe  and  for  which  there  is  a  staple  demand, 
that  he  would  like  to  be  able  to  obtain,  on  the  same  terms,  in  the 
United  States. 


COMMERCIAL,  PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  345 

NECESSITY  FOR  ADEQUATE  SHIPPING  FACIUTIES'aND  CAREFUL  HANDLING  OF  GOODS. 

The  natural  advantage  of  closer  proximity  can  be  made  eflfective 
commercially  only  by  adequate  and  rapid  ocean  steamer  service 
between  the  two  countries  and  by  better  delivery  service  on  Colom- 
bian orders  from  the  factories.  The  improvement  of  port  facilities  in 
Colombia  has  begun,  and  adequate  handling  facilities  will  be  pro- 
vided. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  mentioned  that  improvement  is 
needed  in  the  methods  of  handling  ocean  freight.  No  amount  of 
excellent  packing  will  withstand  careless  handling  to  and  from  ship 
in  loading  and  discharging  ocean  freight,  and,  in  the  past,  a  large 
proportion  of  complaints  of  bad  packmg  against  American  manu- 
facturers can  be  traced  directly  to  careless  handling  by  steamers. 

As  an  example  of  the  harm  being  done  to  American  trade  by  careless 
handling  of  ocean  freight,  one  may  cite  the  case  of  a  valuable  ship- 
ment of  textile  machinery  to  Colombia  late  in  1918.  The  buyers  of 
this  equipment  had  found  that  the  American  machinery  was  lighter 
in  weight  and  more  automatic  than  the  available  European  makes, 
but,  upon  its  receipt  in  a  generally  smashed-up  condition,  involving 
months  of  costly  delay  and  repairs,  it  was  thought  that  the  European 
machinery  would  have  been  better  in  the  lon^  run,  since  it  would 
have  been  received  in  good  condition.  In  this  particular  case  the 
packing  had  been  done  by  experts  in  the  packing  of  machinery  for 
export,  and  it  really  left  nothing  to  be  desired;  the  fault  was  that  of 
the  steamship  company. 

STUDY  OF  SPECIAL  NEEDS  AND  CONDITIONS— ATTENTION  TO  DETAIL. 

The  universal  complaint  on  the  part  of  Colombians  against  the 
United  States  has  been  that  the  Americans  did  not  know  the  country 
and  its  commercial  needs  and  conditions.  Barranquilla  and  Carta- 
gena do  not  take  woolens;  Bogota  does,  but  Bogota  also  takes  light- 
weight goods  for  tropical  wear  for  distribution  in  the  Magdalena 
Valley,  Tolima,  Huila,  etc.  The  tropical  part  of  the  country  does 
not  want  metal  buttons  or  metal  fastenings  on  suspenders,  belts, 

farters,  etc.,  since  these  rust  with  the  climate  and  stain  the  cloth, 
t  is  the  knowledge  of  such  peculiar  conditions  as  these  that  has 
been  lacking  hitherto. 

Tariff  regulations  are  varied  and  sometimes  peculiar;  these  should 
be  studied,  and  instructions  for  the  declaration  of  ^oods  shipped  to 
Colombia  should  be  strictly  followed.  A  case  in  point  is  that  of  an 
order  for  cotton  hosiery,  which  the  American  manufacturer  filled  with 
a  better  grade  of  Lisle,  containing  a  small  quantity  of  silk  thread.  As 
a  result,  the  import  duty,  instead  of  being  90  cents  per  kilo  (gross 
weight) ,  was  assessed  at  S5  per  kilo  (gross  weight) ,  and  the  shipment 
had  to  be  returned. 

Packing  lists  should  agree  with  the  invoice  in  serial  numbering 
and  contents  of  packages.  Very  often  a  wholesaling  importer  has 
had  to  unpack  an  entire  shipment  of  goods  from  a  certain  house  in 
order  to  check  the  shipment  with  the  invoice.  Besides,  under  such 
circumstances,  it  is  not  possible  for  unbroken  packages  to  be  resold 
and  reshipped  to  buyers  from  the  interior  witnout  recounting  and 
repacking — all  entailing  extraordinary  expense. 


346    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

CREDIT  INFORMATION. 

Another  most  important  factor  in  the  maintenance  of  American 
sales  to  Colombia  will  be  the  securing  of  better  credit  information. 
Before  the  war  European  houses  had  their  own  agents  in  the  country, 
or  branches  of  commission  houses,  and  credit  information  was  at 
hand.  The  acquiring  of  such  data  was  one  of  the  principal  services 
of  the  resident  agent.  Potential  distributers  of  goods  were  known 
and  were  helped  with  proper  credits,  established  houses  were  held 
within  reasonable  trade  limits,  etc.  The  establishment  of  American 
branch  banks  in  Colombia  is  doing  a  great  deal  to  fill  this  want  for 
the  exporters  of  the  United  States,  as  is  also  the  general  policy  of 
these  banks  in  making  loans  to  the  merchants  themselves  rather 
than  to  the  planters  (as  was  done  in  the  old  German  system) . 

EDUCATION   IN   PACKING   FOR    EXPORT— COOPERATION    BETWEEN   MANUFACTURERS 

AND  EXPORTERS. 

As  long  as  the  bulk  of  the  business  of  Colombia  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  commission  houses,  there  should  also  be  a  closer  cooperation 
between  the  manufacturer  and  the  exporter.  Taking  the  very 
important  item  of  packing,  it  may  be  saia  that  very  often  the  com- 
mission house  does  not  see  or  inspect  the  goods  before  final  shipment 
to  Colombia  (an  order  sent  out  from  New  York  may  be  filled  in  the 
Middle  West  and  routed  via  New  Orleans)  and  the  factory  does  not 
follow  packing  instructions,  with  the  result  that  there  is  a  damaged 
shipment  and  a  claim  against  the  commission  house.  Many  export 
commission  houses  have  had  to  establish  and  maintain  repacking 
departments  in  New  York,  involving  high  rents  and  two  extra  han- 
dlings of  merchandise,  as  well  as  greater  delay  and  expense  under 
conditions  of  high  labor  cost.  Colombian  importers  do  not  object  to 
packing  charges  if  the  goods  are  properly  packed  and  received  in 
good  condition;  on  the  contrary,  they  are  accustomed  to,  and  expect, 
a  reasonable  charge  for  packmg,  and  in  many  cases  goods  can  be 
placed  in  special  containers,  such  as  the  fiber  cases  (light  and  strong) 
used  by  the  French  exporters  of  millinery,  umbrellas,  shoes,  laces, 
and  the  like,  which  can  oe  charged  for  as  merchandise  and  which  are 
sold  at  a  profit  by  the  purchaser  after  the  goods  are  received.  Shoes 
could  be  packed  (and  are  packed)  in  such  cases  and  also  in  cheap 
trunks,  etc.,  which  form  an  item  of  sale  and  profit  for  the  importer, 
thereby  effecting  a  saving  in  the  heavy  import  duties  assessed  on  the 
gross  weight  of  the  package. 

Cooperation  between  tne  manufacturers  and  the  exporters  will 
eliminate  the  difficulties  complained  of  and  will  make  the  goods 
cheaper  for  the  purchaser. 

A  step  in  the  right  direction  has  recently  been  taken  by  several 
American  firms  which  have  sent  trained  and  experienced  investigators 
to  Latin  America  to  report  the  commercial  situation  in  their  par- 
ticular lines.  These  men  study  the  markets  and  report  on  condi- 
tions in  each  district  of  the  countries  visited.  Their  work  is  invalu- 
able. They  furnish  packing  specifications  for  each  district  in  accord- 
ance with  the  transportation  demands,  and  they  supply  much  other 
vital  information  upon  which  a  successful  future  trade  can  be  based. 
(For  further  discussion  of  packing,  see  Appendix,  p.  378.) 


COMMERCIAL   PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  347 

MARKING  OF  SAMPLES. 

In  the  important  line  of  textiles  a  ^eat  deal  of  good  can  be  done 
by  proper  samples,  and  considerable  improvement  is  needed  in  the 
metnod  of  presentation  of  these  samples  by  American  firms.  All 
samples  should  bear  the  lot  number  and  the  serial  number,  so  that 
duplicate  orders  may  be  placed  by  cable,  using  these  numbers. 
Widths  and  lengths  should  be  given  not  only  in  yards  and  inches 
but  also  in  the  metric  equivalents.  Weights  per  yard  and  meter  of 
length  should  be  given  and  also  weights  of  pieces  and  bales,  net  and 
gross,  so  that  price  comparisons  can  be  made  by  the  interested  im- 
porter. These  samples  are  carefully  filed  by  Colombian  merchants 
for  reference,  and  well-liked  lines  are  pushed  as  leading  and  exclusive 
brands  of  the  house.  English  piece  goods  for  export  are  made  up  of 
standard  lengths  and  do  not  vary  as  do  the  American.  They  are 
also  folded  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  measuring  very  easy.  Co- 
lombian firms  complain  that  they  can  not  get  enough  samples  of 
textiles  from  American  firms. 

BUYING  SEASONS— IMPORTANCE  OF  INFORMATION  ON  CONDITIONS. 

Colombia's  ability  to  purchase  foreign  goods  is  in  direct  relation  to 
the  coffee  crop  of  the  country  and  its  market  price.  If  there  is  a 
large  crop  sold  at  high  prices,  foreign  buying  is  brisk;  if  the  crop  is 
small  or  prices  low,  the  reverse  is  generally  the  case.  Bills  of  goods 
are  sold  in  the  interior  by  the  large  wholesaling  importers  at  six 
months'  time,  payments  being  made  after  the  first  coffee-picking 
season  of  November  and  December — the  main  season  being,  how- 
ever, June,  July,  and  August,  when  the  largest  crop  is  harvested. 
These  latter  months  are  the  buying  season  of  the  country  at  large, 
when  stocks  of  merchandise  are  put  in  for  the  entire  season  by  the 
smaller  dealers  of  the  interior.  A  salesman  visiting  the  country 
during  the  spring  months  would  find  business  slow,  and  this  would 
also  be  the  case  after  August  and  during  the  fall  months,  though, 
under  normal  conditions,  the  bulk  of  the  trade  in  textiles  is  usually 
placed  six  months  in  advance,  except  where  certain  lines  become 
exhausted. 

A  study  of  the  coffee  crop  of  the  country  and  an  advance  knowledge 
of  the  crop  situation  will  greatly  assist  in  gauging  future  market 
conditions  in  Colombia.  There  are  many  ways  of  securing  this 
information.  Commission  houses  are  in  touch  with  their  branches 
and  agents  in  the  country.  The  Colombian  Government  has  recently 
established  a  Bureau  of  Information  in  the  Bush  Terminal  Building 
in  New  York  City,  which  cooperates  with  the  various  Colombian 
consulates.  There  is  also  the  Bureau  of  Foreim  and  Domestic 
Commerce,  of  the  Department  of  Commerce  of  the  United  States, 
always  in  touch  with  conditions  through  the  American  consulates, 
consular  agencies,  and  trade  commissioners.  Branches  of  American 
banks  located  in  Colombia  also  know  conditions  in  their  territories 
and  are  in  touch  with  conditions  throughout  the  country.  A  study 
and  analysis  of  trade  statistics  is  also  very  helpful. 


348    coiiOMBiA:  a  commerciat.  and  industrial  handbook. 

PROTECTION  OF  WHOLESAUNG  IMPORTERS. 

One  source  of  complaint  in  Colombia  against  American  exporters 
is  the  alleged  failure  of  American  houses  to  protect  the  large  whole- 
saling importers,  who  are  the  largest  buyers  of  standard  and  staple 
mercnanaise  and  who  justly  look  upon  the  small  retail  trade  of  their 
respective  districts  as  part  of  their  legitimate  trade  field.  American 
representatives  of  export  houses  are  accused  of  selling  indiscrim- 
inately to  large  and  small  merchants  alike  at  the  same  price  and 
terms,  the  salesman  first  calling  on  the  large  importers  anci  then,  in 
order  to  sell  as  much  as  possible  in  the  territory,  selling  to  the  small 
retail  dealers — thereby  injuring  the  larger  importer  whose  volume  of 
business  and  capital  naturally  entitle  hrni  to  the  wholesale  territory. 
European  houses  exporting  to  Colombia  did  not  do  this  and  were 
very  careful  to  protect  their  large  customers  in  standard  and  staple 
lines  of  merchandise.  English  textile  firms,  for  example,  held  a 
certain  pattern  and  quality  of  weave  exclusively  for  their  large 
customer  in  a  particular  territory;  the  customer's  own  brand  was 
put  on  the  goods,  and  the  English  house  refused  to  let  rival  establish- 
ments in  Colombia  have  this  brand.  In  this  manner  the  importer 
was  able  to  work  up  a  good  and  constant  trade  in  this  particular 
line — a  staple  trade  from  year  to  year,  which  cost  little  for  sales 
expense  and  which  could  be  estimated  far  in  advance.  The  result 
was  large  orders  yearly  for  these  standard  and  exclusive  brands,  with 
no  question  of  change  of  styles,  credits,  or  market  conditions,  this 
arrangement  being  well  suited  to  both  the  manufacturer  and  the 
importer. 

Very  often  the  small  retail  dealers  have  not  suflicient  capital  to 
finance  large  orders  of  this  kind,  but  place  such  orders  in  an  endeavor 
to  secure  the  trade.  The  result  often  is  that  a  failure  is  registered, 
and  the  large  importer,  with  capital,  buys  in  the  shipment  at  a  low 
figure. 

It  is  the  policy  of  the  American  banks  established  in  Latin  America 
to  protect  the  merchant  and  let  him  take  care  of  the  planter  and  small 
dealer,  rather  than  to  follow  the  old  German  system  of  making  loans 
directly  to  the  planter  and  of  allowing  large  and  long-term  credits 
to  small  dealers,  literally  financing  them  for  a  year's  business.  This 
policy  would  appear  to  apply  to  the  business  of  wholesale  exporting, 
the  benefits  being  unquestioned  credits,  large  annual  business  from  a 
few  good  firms,  and  stable  trade — vital  considerations  when  the  dis- 
tance is  considered. 

In  connection  with  the  subject  of  protecting  the  large  importers, 
it  should  be  pointed  out  that  trade  conditions  are  changing  rapidly 
in  Colombia.  Every  year  sees  hundreds  of  new  firms  starting  to 
engage  in  general  merchandising  business  all  over  the  country. 
Politicians,  doctors,  and  lawyers  engage  in  trade,  and,  also,  stores 
are  started  by  many  young  men  who  have  served  their  apprenticeship 
in  the  larger  houses  of  the  country.  The  character  of  tne  people  is 
individualistic,  making  for  individual  effort  on  every  hand.  Talent 
in  abundance  is  there,  but  capital  is  often  lacking,  and  the  country 
itself  is  very  difficult,  as  has  been  shown,  being  broken  up  into  eight 
or  nine  different  commercial  districts  by  natural  barriers,  with  com- 
mercial competition  very  keen  in  eacn  district.  Many  people  are 
attracted  to  trade  by  the  large  margin  of  profit  usual  in  the  country^ 


COMMERCIAL,  PRACTICES  AND  REQUIREMENTS.  349 

but  all  do  not  make  a  success.  For  these  reasons,  also,  the  firm  that 
is  represented  by  its  own  resident  agent  or  branch  office  has  a  great 
advantage  in  being  able  to  follow  closely  all  new  developments  in 
a  particular  district. 

ESSENTIALS  FOR  RETENTION  OF  AMERICAN  TRADE.  » 

The  essentials  for  the  retention  of  American  trade  in  Colombia 
upon  the  return  of  the  world  to  normal  conditions  may  be  summarized 
as  follows: 

1.  Cultivation  of  the  personal  relation.     Courtesy.    Mutual  respect. 

2.  Attention  to  details,  prompt  accounting,  etc.  Correct  billing.  Agreement  of 
quotations  and  prices  charged.  Agreement  of  packing  lists  \vith  invoices,  etc.  Cor- 
rect declarations  of  shipments. 

3.  Proper  packing  in  accordance  with  climatic  and  transportation  requirements, 
always  following  buyer's  instructions. 

4.  Protection  of  the  large  importer  (who  knows  the  local  dealers  better). 

5.  Study  of  commercial  needs  of  the  country  by  districts. 

6.  Study  of  economic  conditions,  bu\ing  seasons,  crops,  etc. 

7.  'Cooperation  between  manufacturer  and  exporter  for  better  packing,  etc. 

8.  Better  and  more  adequate  credit  information. 

9.  Following  of  buyer's  instructions  on  packing,  billing,  invoicing,  routing,  insur- 
ance, etc. 

10.  Influence  on  trade  of  loans  and  long  credits. 

11.  Progressive  advertising.  • 

12.  Resident  representation. 

13.  Prompt  attention  to  claims  and  settlement  of  disputes. 

As  has  been  said,  the  natural  tendency  of  Colombian  trade  is  to 
return  to  P^urope,  this  tendency  being  fostered  by  the  old  and  long- 
established  trade  relations,  which  were  based  on  mutual  under- 
standing and  benefit.  There  are  many  advantages  to  the  Colombian 
merchant  in  trade  with  the  United  States,  not  the  least  of  these 
being  the  closer  proximity  of  the  two  countries,  making  possible 
much  more  rapid  delivery  of  goods  (if  adequate  tonnage  is  provided) 
and  thereby  partly  eliminating  the  necessity  for  long-credit  terms; 
but  these  advantages  must  be  supported  by  the  American  exporter 
as  indicated  above,  or  they  will  be  nullified  to  a  very  great  extent. 
Colombia's  trade  is  worth  while,  and  will  be  more  worth  while  as  time 
^oes  on.  The  commercial  development  of  the  country  shows  this, 
imports  having  increased  from  about  12,000,000  Colombian  dollars 
in  1906  to  29,000,000  dollars  in  1916  (1  dollar  =  S0.9733  United 
States  currency),  with  a  still  greater  and  more  phenomenal  in- 
crease in  1919,  the  total  being  expected  to  reach  nearly  50,000,000 
dollars  following  the  prosperous  condition  of  the  country  brought 
about  by  the  coffee  situation  of  that  year.  Commerce  and  industry 
are  confidently  expected  to  be  very  active  in  Colombia  for  the  next 
five  or  six  years.  New  railways  are  being  built,  new  factories  are 
being  erected  and  the  old  ones  enlarged,  the  cattle  industry  is  increas- 
ing rapidly,  mining  is  certain  to  expand,  and  the  production  of  coffee, 
sugar,  and  tobacco  is  increasing. 

Sentiment  plays  a  greater  part  in  the  business  life  of  Colombia  than 
in  that  of  the  United  States,  and  the  problem  of  retaining  Colombia's 
trade  is  one  that  must  be  solved  by  the  American  manufacturer  and 
exporter. 

The  Colombian  importer  would  like  to  continue  to  buy  in  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  to  ship  his  exports  there,  but  he  also  likes 
to  feel  that  he  belongs  in  our  economic  scheme;  that  he  is  doing 


350     COLOMBIA:  A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

business  with  broad-minded  people  who  understand  his  country 
and  his  own  individual  needs  and  requirements;  that  he  is  liked  per- 
sonally and  accorded  due  consideration;  that  there  is  time  in  wnich 
to  attend  to  his  needs;  and  that  he  is  getting  the  cooperation  and 
assistance  (in  building  up  his  business  for  the  future)  to  which  his 
past  efforts  and  achievements  entitle  him. 

American  capital  is  being  attracted  to  the  oil  fields  of  Colombia, 
to  railwaj  construction,  harbor  and  dock  improvement  work,  river 
canalization,  sugar  and  tobacco  planting,  cattle  raising  and  packing 
houses,  platinum  and  gold  mining,  and  manufacturing;  and  at  least 
80  cents  of  every  dollar  so  invested  remains  as  a  permanent  invest- 
ment in  the  country,  enriching  it  to  that  extent.  More  construc- 
tion work  will  be  done  in  Colombia  during  the  next  10  years  than  in 
the  past  50  years;  more  modern  buildings  will  be  erected,  more 
municipal  lighting  plants  installed,  and  more  factory  equipment 
purchased.  The  time  is  opportune  for  active  and  progressive  sales 
work  and  business  building  m  Colombia. 

PARCEL-POST  TRADE  WITH  COLOMBIA. 

The  postal  measure  increasing  the  weight  limit  of  parcel-post 
packages  from  the  United  States  to  Colombia  from  5  kilos  (11  pounds) 
to  10  kHos  (22  pounds),  which  went  into  effect  early  in  1919,  had 
an  immediate  and  beneficial  effect  on  the  volume  of  imports  from 
the  United  States.  Imports  of  merchandise,  consisting  chiefly  of 
fancy  drygoods,  haberdashery,  millinery  trimmings,  women's  wear, 
etc.,  increased  at  least  900  per  cent  by  September,  1919,  especially 
at  interior  points,  such  as  Bogota  and  Manizales,  where  freight  is 
slow  and  rates  high. 

Another  reason  for  this  phenomenal  increase  in  parcel-post  impor- 
tations was  the  character  of  the  market  conditions  in  Colombia 
during  the  year.  When  the  Colombian  market  reacted  in  May,  1919, 
as  a  result  of  the  coffee  situation,  stocks  were  low,  as  the  larger 
importers  had  been  waiting  for  lower  prices  after  the  termination  of 
hostilities  in  Europe.  The  influx  of  wealth  caused  an  immediate 
and  insistent  demand  for  fancy  goods  of  all  kinds — laces,  ribbons, 
stockings,  embroideries,  fancy  dress  goods. and  patterns,  trimmings, 
slippers,  etc. — and  men's  wear  of  every  sort.  The  Ma^dalena  River, 
the  main  artery  of  traffic  with  the  interior,  was  in  bad  condition, 
and  freights  were  very  congested  with  coffee  and  with  imports  pre- 
viously received.  Merchants  found  that  they  could  receive  small 
and  ready  shipments  of  seasonal  merchandise  by  parcel  post  in  less 
than  six  weeks  from  date  of  order,  and  so  keep  up  a  constantly  moving 
stock  of  "ready-sale"  goods  carrying  attractive  profits.  Competition 
locally  was  also  keen,  and  by  using  the  parcel-post  service  merchants 
were  enabled  constantly  to  display  new  and  attractive  goods  of  the 
latest  styles  in  accord  with  the  local  seasons  and  climate. 

Another  reason  for  the  use  of  the  parcel  post  was  the  market  con- 
dition in  the  United  States.  Prices  were  very  high  and  fluctuated 
almost  daily,  firm  quotations  being  impossible  to  secure  on  many 
lines  of  goods.  By  the  use  of  the  parcel  post  small  stocks  could  be 
obtained  quickly  without  waiting  for  the  usual  time  required  in  the 
case  of  ordinary  freight,  and  a  good  J,rade  could  be  carried  on  pending 


COMMERCIAL  PRACTICES  A2ST)  REQUIREMENTS. 


351 


the  receipt  of  large  orders  of  more  staple  lines  or  the  advent  of  better 
buying  conditions. 

Imports  into  Colombia  by  parcel  post  totaled  680,183  kilos,  valued 
at  2,657,975  Colombian  dollars,  in  1916,  and  390,739  kilos,  valued  at 
2,133,099  dollars,  in  1918 — goods  having  almost  doubled  in  cost  in 
the  meantime,  as  is  shown  by  the  difference  in  weight  between  the 
two  years,  the  values  remaining  almost  the  same. 

In  1919,  after  May,  imports  oy  parcel  post  increased,  as  has  been 
said,  as  much  as  900  per  cent  in  some  conmiercial  centers  of  the 
interior,  and  the  returns  for  1919  will  show  an  enormous  increase  in 
imports  by  this  means. 

Exports  by  parcel  post  in  1918  amounted  to  9,492  kilos,  valued  at 
98,611  Colombian  dollars,  and  consisted  chiefly  of  Panama  hats, 
jewels,  platinum,  and  gold.  The  United  States  received  26,000  dol- 
lars' worth,  Great  Britain  42,046  dollars,  France  15,212  dollars,  and 
other  countries  14,715  dollars. 

To  convey  an  idea  of  the  volume  of  business  in  parcel-post  orders 
in  each  conunercial  district,  the  following  tables  are  given  for  1918: 

[Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Post  offices. 


Barranquilla.. 

Bogota 

Buenaventura. 

Call 

Cucuta 

Ibague 

Manizales 

Medellin 

Neiva 

Pasto 

Popayan 

Santa  Marta... 

Sincelejo 

Tumaco 

Tunja 


Spain. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

10, 461 

36,809 

788 

1,(M0 

1,694 

88 

2,953 

13, 170 

51 

2,183 

1.475 

65 

276 

2,667 

1,896 


United 
states. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

199,866 

507,040 

13,375 

75,847 

19,678 

5,834 

50,614 

213, 403 

5,333 

7,686 

9,700 

1,646 

3,917 

7,862 

5,875 


France. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

24,387 

276,443 

392 

26,587 

4,334 

375 

27,715 

100,612 

28 

2,275 

2,647 

7 

573 

426 


Italy. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

16,272 

38,252 

973 

10,241 

2,796 

9 

4,775 

28,229 


2,260 
432 


1,646 


Great 
Britain. 


Other 
countries. 


Colombian 

dollars. 

11,494 

103,746 

884 

5,831 

3,212 

164 

5,801 

51,057 


5,388 
1,818 


2,038 


Colombian 

dollars. 

5,244 

38,678 

74 

4,456 

816 

419 

2,487 

27,871 


755 
272 


53 


Note. — Data  are  not  available  for  Bucaramanga  and  Cartagena. 

Total  parcel-post  imports  for  1918  were  390,739  kilos,  valued  at 
2,133,099  Colombian  dollars.  Imports  by  parcel  post  from  Italy 
consisted  chiefly  of  felt  hats  (BorcellLno) ;  from  Spam  of  knit  goods, 
stockings,  underwear,  etc. ;  and  from  Great  Britain  of  fancy  leather 
goods  and  fancy  dry  goods.     Fancy  dry  goods  came  also  from  France. 

Exporters  of  fancy  dry  goods  and  notions  can  take  advantage  of 
the  parcel-post  service  to  develop  a  trade  with  Colombia  by  the  use 
of  catalogues.  These,  however,  should  be  printed  in  Spanish;  the 
metric  equivalents  of  weights  and  measures  should  be  given;  and 
price  lists  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  remain  firm  for  a  considerable 
period.  A  good  system  of  catalogues,  intended  to  take  care  of  price 
fluctuations  in  the  United  States,  is  one  made  up  of  loose  leaves,  or 
series  of  seasonal  booklets  prepared  for  ready  filing  together  in  one 
large  binder.  Attractive  cuts  of  the  goods  offered  can  be  shown  in 
colors,  with  all  reading  matter  in  Spanish.  Prices  quoted  for  orders 
must  agree  with  the  invoices. 


352      COLOMBIA:  a  commercial.  AliTD  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

It  should  always  be  remembered  that  import  duties  on  parcel-post 
matter  are  assessed  according  to  the  value  of  the  most  costly  article 
contained  in  a  mixed  shipment  (law  No.  99)  and  that  silk  articles, 
or  silk  mixtures,  should  not  be  packed  with  cotton  goods,  since  in 
such  a  case  the  lower-priced  goods  will  take  the  same  import  duty  rate 
as  the  silk,  which  is  assessed  at  $5  to  $6  per  kilo  of  gross  weight. 
Duties  are  specific  and  are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  of  packages — 
wrapping  and  all.  The  recommendations  fo^  packing  in  general 
apply  to  all  parcel-post  shipments.  Packages  mtended  for  the  inte- 
nor  must  be  waterproofed  in  some  way,  preferably  by  the  use  of  a 
light  tarpaulin. 

Loss  by  pilferage  is  very  common  and  should  be  guarded  against 
in  every  possible  way,  even  if  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  reasonable 
charge  for  extra  packing  cost.  When  the  contents  are  of  very  high 
value  (such  as  manufactured  silks  and  the  like),  packag-es  should  be 
inclosed  in  a  fine  wire-mesh  inside  wrapping  to  prevent  cutting  with 
a  knife.  All  shipments  should  be  insured  tm'ougn  to  destination,  not 
merely  to  port  oi  entry,  since  most  of  the  loss  occurs  in  the  interior. 
There  are  two  good  insurance  companies  in  Colombia,  which  cover 
the  country,  and  the  exporter  should  take  out  a  policy  covering  goods 
through  Colombia  from  port  of  entry  to  final  destination;  otherwise, 
if  loss  occurs  in  the  interior,  the  purchaser  can  not  collect  com- 
pensation for  his  damage  or  loss. 

The  best  packing,  when  the  nature  of  the  goods  permits  of  it,  is  in 
the  form  of  a  small  pressed  bale,  protected  first  by  the  heavy  paper 
wrapping  inside,  then  by  the  waterproofing,  and  then  by  the  outside 
cover  sewed  on  to  fit — the  entire  package  being  pressed  to  the  smallest 
possible  volume.  Pasteboard  liners  for  piece  ^oods,  ribbons,  laces, 
embroideries,  etc.,  should  be  removed,  as  all  this  adds  extra  weight, 
on  which  duty  and  postage  must  be  paid  by  the  buyer. 

Parcel-post  imports  are  not  opened  and  inspected  at  the  port  of 
entry  but  proceed  direct  to  destination,  where  tney  are  examined  and 
appraised  m  the  local  post  office,  and  the  addressee  notified. 

During  1919  the  parcel-post  service  between  the  United  States  and 
Colombia  was  used  chiefly  by  export  commission  houses  in  filling 
orders  for  their  clients  in  Colombia.  Its  use  is  becoming  more  and 
more  general  and  will  continue  to  increase  until  such  time  as  Colombia 
is  possessed  of  better  transportation  facilities  than  now  exist  in  the 
country.  Dealers  in  Colombia  are  also  using  the  domestic  parcel- 
post  service  for  the  distribution  of  wholesale  merchandise  from  com- 
mercial centers  to  the  interior,  the  goods  thus  handled  being  repacked 
by  the  importers  to  suit  the  transportation  requirements  of  the  region 
to  which  the  goods  go.^ 

CREDIT  TERMS. 

The  usual  terms  granted  by  American  exporters  on  Colombian 
orders  at  the  present  time  are  120  days'  date,  being  equal  to  90  days' 
sight,  which  was  formerly  customary.  Many  arguments  are  advanced 
in  Colombia  for  and  against  lon^  terms  of  credit.  Prior  to  the  war 
the  bulk  of  the  import  business  in  staple  and  standard  lines  such  as 
textiles  was  done  on  the  old  six-month  basis  allowed  by  European 

1  An  article  on  the  parcel-post  service  at  Barranquilla,  siving  a  detailed  account  of  the  duties  and  other 
charges  assessed  on  packag&s,  the  parcel-post  rates  from  the  principal  countries,  etc.,  was  published  in 
Commerce  Reports  for  Aug.  5, 1919. 


COMMERCIAL  PRACTICES   AND   REQUIREMENTS.  353 

houses  on  accounts  with  the  older  and  stronger  importing  firms  of 
the  country,  and  late  in  1919  there  were  certain  indications  of  a  return 
to  this  basis  on  the  part  of  European  houses — chiefly  affecting  the 
old  lines  of  English  textiles  and  their  old  and  long-established  trade 
connections  in  Colombia. 

However,  conditions  resulting  from  the  war  in  general  and  the  pros- 

Eerous  condition  of  Colombia  induced  by  the  coffee  situation  of  1919 
ave  brought  about  a  great  change  in  Colombian  domestic  trade  as 
related  to  the  import  trade.  A  powerful  factor  in  this  change  has 
been  the  influence  of  the  several  large  Colombian  conmaission  firms 
established  in  New  York,  which  are  endeavoring  to  continue  the  same 
system  of  credits  as  those  obtaining  during  the  war — 90  days'  sight 
or  120  days'  date — since  their  own  transactions  in  the  United  States 
are  based  on  these  terms.  Also,  the  larger  and  long-established 
importers  who  possess  sufficient  capital  for  their  business  needs,  in 
buying  and  also  in  taking  care  of  the  smaller  retail  dealers  of  their 
district  and  of  the  interior,  see  in  these  shorter  credit  terms  a  great*- 

,        advantage  to  themselves  in  holding  their  wholesale  trade,  which  they 

I       can  then  control  through  their  own  system  of  long  credits  to  the 

I       interior  retail  trade  that  they  finance. 

I  Another  important  factor  influencing  the  necessity,  or  lack  of  it,  for 

longer  terms  of  credit  in  Colombia,  has  been  the  establishment  in  the 
country  of  American  branch  banks,  whose  policy  it  is  to  protect  and 
assist  with  loans  the  merchant  importer  rather  than  the  planters. 
As  conditions  now  are,  a  merchant  who  desires  to  increase  his  business 
can,  upon  the  presentation  of  the  proper  proof  of  solvency  and  healthy 
increase  in  his  turnover,  etc.,  secure  additional  commercial  credit 
(in  many  cases  almost  double  that  formerly  allowed  him  by  native 
banking  institutions),  and  this  further  obviates  the  necessity  for 
longer  terms  of  credit  on  commercial  bills. 

Again,  there  must  be  taken  into  consideration  the  fact  of  the  extra- 
ordinarily increased  financial  resources  of  the  country  in  general, 
brought  about  by  the  influx  of  wealth  due  to  the  1919  coffee  situation. 
The  circulating  medium  of  the  country  has  been  increased  in  metallic 
currency  (gold) ,  and  this  increased  wealth  has  been  distributed  among 
the  small  producers  as  never  before,  furnishing  a  good  basis  of  working 
capital  and  still  further  obviating  the  need  f  or  long  terms  to  the  dealers 
of  the  interior,  who  are  now  able  to  handle  stocks,  if  well  selected, 
thi'ee  and  four  times  a  year  instead  of  once  or  twice  a  year,  as  was  for- 
merly the  case.  In  other  words,  long  credits  are  no  longer  a  vital 
factor  in  trade  with  the  interior,  and  the  old  order  of  things  is  rapidly 

Eassing  in  Colombia;  the  country,  instead  of  remaining  on  the  old 
asis  and  adhering  to  the  system  implanted  by  the  Germans  and 
followed  by  European  houses,  is  adoptmg  the  standard  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  domestic  commerce  is  following  alon^  these  lines. 

Quick  deliveries  of  goods — in  other  words,  rapid  and  adequate 
ocean  steamship  service  and  prompt  attention  to  orders  by  the  fac- 
tories in  the  United  States — also  tend  to  eliminate  the  necessity  for 
long  terms  of  credit. 

The  old  German  system  of  long  terms  of  credit  and  large  stocks  of 
goods,  with  loans  to  the  planters,  practically  financed  the  merchants 
and  made  it  possible  for  them  to  mvest  their  surplus  in  exports  and 
other  forms  of  business  for  additional  profit.     The  prevalence  of  this 

37558°— 21 23 


354    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

system,  in  the  past,  gave  the  merchants  their  present  capital  and 
standing.  However,  this  necessity  may  be  said,  as  a  general  thing, 
to  have  passed  for  Colombia.  Of  course,  there  are  many  cases  where 
a  stock,  if  placed  in  the  right  hands,  at  long  terms,  ancf  more  especi- 
ally in  new  trade  districts  not  properly  developed  as  yet  (as,  for 
example,  the  Tumaco-Barbacoas-Pasto  region) ,  will  bring  increased 
business  and  develop  new  trade. 

It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  new  dealer  with  small  capital 
needs  longer  terms  on  his  bills,  and,  also,  that  the  older  merchant 
with  capital  has  to  meet  competition  when  selling  to  the  interior  and 
that  time  is  an  important  factor  in  that  trade  on  account  of  the  crop 
seasons.  And,  besides,  long  terms  are  attractive  even  to  the  mer- 
chant with  sufiicient  capital,  because  they  enable  him  to  reinvest  his 
surplus  in  exports  and  other  enterprises  of  sufficient  margin  of  profit 
to  himself  during  the  year  to  make  the  small  interest  chaises  on 
long-term  bills  a  secondary  consideration. 

LOANS  AS  TRADE  FACTORS. 

Another  important  factor  tending  to  increase  trade  will  be  that  of 
loans  to  Departments  and  municipalities  to  be  used  in  public  works. 
The  prosperous  condition  of  the  country  as  a  whole  has  given  the 
departmental  and  municipal  governments  their  first  opportunity  in 
years  for  improvements;  thev  have  had  financial  surpluses  over  and 
above  their  most  pressing  administrative  needs,  and  these  surpluses 
are  being  invested  in  water  systems,  lighting  plants,  slaughter- 
houses, street  railways,  municipal  theaters,  and  the  like — all  paying 
ventures,  for  which  materials  and  equipment  are  needed.  Several 
recent  examples  of  the  part  played  by  such  loans  in  the  promotion 
of  trade  are  the  new  docks  at  Buenaventura  and  the  municipal  elec- 
tric street  railway  of  Medellin,  Antioquia.  In  both  cases  the  neces- 
sarj^  money  was  arranged  for  with  an  American  foreign-banking 
institution  by  an  export  commission  house;  this  house  furnished  afl 
the  materials,  machinery,  and  equipment  for  the  account  of  the 
Government  interested  and  received  installment  payments  periodi- 
cally on  the  loan,  taking  care  of  both  principal  and  interest  in  a 
manner  very  satisfactory  to  all  concerned.  There  is  a  wide  field  for 
such  enterprise  in  Colombia  to-day.  Relations  of  this  nature  do  a 
great  deal  to  promote  trade  between  the  two  countries,  and  at  the 
same  time  they  have  a  great  influence  in  enabling  Colombia  to  reap 
the  fullest  possible  benefit  from  its  present  prosperous  condition 
and  to  prepare  facilities  for  handling  future  increases  in  trade  and 
economic  development.  Such  relations  are  striking  examples  of 
what  is  meant  by  cooperation  in  foreign  trade,  in  which  all  elements 
composing  the  complicated  system  of  business  are  harmoniously 
comoined  for  mutual  benefit.  Those  elements  include  the  banker, 
the  exporter  (commission  house),  and  the  representatives  of  the 
people  who  are  the  purchasers. 

The  sending  of  American  railway  and  construction  engineers  to 
Colombia  to  handle  and  install  this  new  equipment  and  to  work  out 
new  projects  of  development  will  further  tend  to  increase  the  sale  of 
•  American  machinery,  equipment,  and  products,  and  there  should  be 
more  American  professional  men  in  the  countrv.  At  the  present 
time  a  German  engineer  is  laying  out  the  new  railway  for  the  city  of 
Medellin.     The  German  engineer  naturally  does  not  favor  the  Amer- 


COMMERCIAL   PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  355 

ican  type  of  truck,  motor,  or  car,  and  there  is  no  one  on  the  ground 
to  refute  his  statements  or  to  demonstrate  the  American  model. 
A  Swiss  watchmaker  operating  a  local  jewelry  store  (most  of  the 
jewelers  are  Swiss)  never  loses  an  opportunity  to  demonstrate  the 
alleged  defects  of  watches  of  American  design.  A  great  point  is 
made  of  the  supposed  weakness  of  the  American  type  of  watch  case 
with  the  stem  "set"  and  hand-catch  release;  the  Swiss  side-catch 
desi^  is  claimed  to  be  better.  American  watch  repair  parts  are  not 
carried  in  stock,  of  course,  the  dealer  receiving  his  supply  of  watches 
and  parts  directly  by  parcel  post  from  Switzerland.  These  instances 
illustrate  the  desirability  of  having  Americans  in  Colombia  to  pre- 
sent effectively  the  case  for  American  goods. 

LETTERS  TO  CONSULS,  TRADE  COMMISSIONERS,  AND  COLOMBIAN 

FIRMS. 

Letters  directed  to  American  consuls  and  trade  commissioners  by 
American  commission  firms  seeking  business  with  Colombia  are  much 
too  general  in  character,  as  are  also  those  addressed  to  native  firms 
with  which  it  is  hoped  to  open  negotiations  and  engage  in  trade. 

An  examination  and  analysis  of  hundreds  of  such  letters  received 
by  consuls  and  Colombian  firms  showed  only  about  half  a  dozen  that 
were  direct  and  specific  in  character  and  showed  a  real  knowledge  of 
conditions.  Many  letters  asked,  in  general  terms,  for  data  that 
could  be  procured  only  by  months  of  hard  traveling  in  the  interior 
(often  by  mule-back)  and  much  personal  investigation — the  writers 
not  realizing  that  the  southern  town  of  Pasto  is  farther  from  the 
Caribbean  coast  of  Colombia,  by  time  of  travel  (and  also  expense), 
than  Europe  is,  and  that  it  has  little  commercial  intercourse  with  the 
rest  of  the  country,  especially  the  coast  cities  where  consulates  are 
located. 

Other  letters  show  a  lack  of  knowledge  of  the  means  of  obtaining 
information  near  at  hand  in  the  United  States.  For  example,  one 
manufacturer  wrote  to  Bogota  (his  communication  being  one  month 
in  transit)  asking  for  information  that  had  already  been  published  in 
a  monograph  of  the  Special  Agents  Series,  which  would  have  answered 
every  question  and  which  he  could  have  secured  for  a  few  cents  and 
in  24  hours  from  Washington,  or  by  request  from  any  district  office 
of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  He  did  not  know 
that  an  expert  in  his  line  had  already  investigated  the  field  and  done 
the  work,  and  60  days  were  lost  in  waiting  for  the  reply  from  Bogota. 
Every  possible  source  of  information  should  be  exhausted  before  one 
writes  to  Colombia,  because  the  delays  are  very  great.  Knowledge 
of  these  sources  of  trade  information  and  the  study  of  them  is  one  of 
the  first  requirements  of  exporting.  Many  banks  in  the  larger  cities 
of  the  country  have  established  trade-information  bureaus  which  are 
familiar  with  such  data.  Chambers  of  commerce  and  manufacturers' 
associations  are  also  informed  and  can  help  in  this  regard,  and  there 
is  always  the  local  or  nearest  district  office  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce,  where  trained  and  experienced  men  are 
employed  to  assist  anyone  who  applies. 

In  writing  to  consuls  it  should  be  remembered  that  they  are  very 
busy  men,  with  many  demands  upon  their  time  outside  of  their 
routine  work,  and  that  really  very  little  accurate  information  can  be 


356    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

obtained  in  one  part  of  Colombia  about  another  part;  concerning  the 
trade  and  merchants  of  MedelHn,  for  example,  more  is  known  in  New 
York  than  in  Barranauilla  or  Cartagena.  There  are  no  trade  direc- 
tories or  commercial  lists  in  Colombia. 

A  general  offer  of  superior  facilities  to  the  average  Colombian  mer- 
chant is  not  sufficient  and  does  not  interest  him.  He  is  usually  a 
general  merchant,  dealing  in  general  merchandise,  handling  exports, 
and  doing  a  general  wholesale  and  retail  business,  with  long-estab- 
lished connections  with  some  large  export  commission  house  in  New 
York.  Such  firms  make  inquiries  of  the  consuls  only  for  some  special 
article  or  goods  that  they  can  not  get  from  their  connections  or  that 
they  do  not  find  described  in  catalogues. 

American  firms  should,  in  every  case,  write  a  personal  letter  and 
submit  specific  offers  of  merchandise,  with  detailed  specifications  and, 
if  possible,  samples.  Particular  lines  of  goods  should,  in  every  case,  be 
specified,  with  definite  price  offerings,  etc. 

South  America  has  been  flooded,  since  the  war,  with  circular  letters 
sent  out  by  many  new  export  firms  of  all  kinds,  Colombia  being  no 
exception  to  this.  It  should  be  remembered  that  personal  relations 
count  for  more  in  Latin  American  business  than  elsewhere  and  that 
letters  are  not  sufficient  to  secure  trade ;  the  markets  should  be  visited 
with  a  line  of  samples  and  relations  established  in  that  way.  Credit 
ratings  and  bank  references  should  always  be  given  by  American 
firms,  as  Colombian  merchants  like  to  feel  that  they  are  doing  business 
with  a  large  and  responsible  house. 

In  trade  lists  it  will  be  noted  that  many  names  of  firms  in  South 
America  end  with  an  initial,  as  for  example: 

Francisco  Carbonell  W. 
Hernando  de  Castro  P.  y  Cfa. 

Business  houses  m  the  United  States  should  use  this  initial  always, 
as  it  is  important  for  two  reasons  and  serves  a  definite  purpose. 

The  principal  object  of  the  initial  is  to  avoid  confusion  of  names 
and  mail,  telegrams,  etc.,  caused  by  many  persons  having  the  same 
name,  the  initial  serving  to  distinguish  one  family  from  another. 
This,  condition  emanates  from  the  fact  that  in  the  early  times  there 
were  few  wealthly  families,  and  these  became  interrelated  by  mar- 
riage, which'  accounts  for  the  great  number  of  similar  surnames. 
Given  names  also  are  of  ten- similar,  because  of  the  custom  of  naming 
children  for  the  Saint  whose  fiesta  day  is  approximate  to  the  birth- 
day. ,  Also,  very  often  family  names  are  given  children.  Another 
factor  is  the  pride  of  family  connection  found  in  all  Latin  American 
countries. 

The  last  initial  denotes  the  mother's  surname,  as  for  example : 

Hernando  de  Castro  P.  y  Cfa. 
Hernando  de  Castro  (Palacios)  y  Cfa. 

Hernando  de  Castro's  mother's  family  name  having  been  "Pala- 
cios." 

This  matter  is  one  of  the  small  courtesies  that  go. to  make  up  a 
successful  business  relation. 


COMMERCIAL  PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  357 

CATALOGUES. 

Both  catalogues  and  samples  are  excellent  mediums  of  trade 
promotion  if  properly  presented.  Catalogues  should,  of  course,  be 
printed  in  the  Spanish  language,  with  all  weights  and  measures  given 
in  the  metric  equivalents,  so  that  duties,  prices,  etc.,  can  be  estimated 
and  comparisons  made.  Catalogues  put  out  with  color  cuts  are  very 
well  liked  and  do  much  good;  they  are  kept  for  reference  and  com- 
parison by  the  importers,  who  like  to  receive  new  catalogues  showing 
new  lines  of  merchandise  and  are  quick  to  pick  out  articles,  patterns, 
etc.,  that  they  believe  will  sell  well  in  their  districts.  A  very  good 
plan,  and  one  that  is  being  more  and  more  used,  is  that  of  the  loose- 
leaf  book  which  is  added  to  from  time  to  time  as  seasonable  offerings 
are  made.  This  method  avoids  the  waste  attendant  upon  a  situation 
of  fluctuating  prices,  as  was  the  case  in  1919.  Prices  shown  in  cata- 
logues should  be,  so  far  as  possible,  firm  for  at  least  30  days  (60  being 
better),  and  the  weights,  lengths,  widths,  gross  and  net  weights  oi 

Eacking  cases  or  containers — tnat  is,  shipping  weights — should  always 
e  specified  for  each  article  shown,  so  tnat  calculations  of  price  and 
cost  can  be  made  and  the  import  duty  estimated,  as  well  as  freights 
and  other  charges.  With  each  folder,  booklet,  or  catalo^e  should  be 
sent  a  letter  containing  specific  information  and  a  definite  offer. 

Goods  shipped  on  catalogue  orders  must  be  correct  and  must  agree 
with  the  quality,  pattern,  and  price  offered.  Colombian  buyers, 
being  general  merchants  and  having  strong  competition,  are  keen 
judges  of  merchandise  in  many  lines  and  are  expert  in  figuring  the 
commercial  worth  of  an  assortment. 

SAMPLES. 

There  is  great  interest  in  Colombia  in  American  goods  of  all  kinds 
formerly  imported  from  Europe,  and  more  especially  in  textiles,  but 
merchants  of  Colombia  complained  that  they  could  not  get  samples 
of  lines  badly  needed  from  American  firms  during  1919.  Their 
requests  were  generally  ignored,  and  this  caused  bad  feeling.  Sam- 
ples do  a  great  deal  of  good  and  are  productive  of  noteworthy  orders. 
They  are  carefully  examined  and  compared  by  the  Colombians,  and 
new  lines  and  patterns  are  ordered  whenever  it  is  thought  that  these 
will  sell  well  locally  and  in  the  commercial  district  of  the  importer. 
New  and  better  goods  are  being  demanded  by  the  public  in  Colombia, 
and  importers  are  very  glad  to  receive  samples  and  make  use  of  them. 

All  samples  should  be  marked  ''Muestras  sin  valor"  ("Samples 
without  value")  and  should  be  sent  by  parcel  post  with  adequate 
postage.  Too  often,  in  the  past,  postage  nas  not  been  sufficient  and 
the  aadressee  has  had  to  appear  in  person  at  the  post  office  and  pay 
the  postage  due,  with  an  additional  fine  of  100  per  cent  of  the  shortage. 
It  may  seem  incredible  but  it  is  true  that  literally  thousands  of 
letters,  catalogues,  advertising  matter,  and  samples  are  thrown  away 
every  month  in  Colombia  on  account  of  inadequate  postage  or  im- 
proper addressing. 


358    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial. and  industrial  handbook. 

All  samples  of  textiles  sent  to  Colombia  should  bear  the  following 
data: 

Serial  and  lot  numbers. 

Weight  per  square  yard  or  yard  of  length  and  per  meter. 

Number  of  threads  to  the  inch.  • 

Net  weight  of  piece. 

Gross  shippine  weight  of  bale  or  package  for  shipment. 

Price  per  yard  (or  meter)  and  per  piece. 

All  samples  should  be  so  marked  and  arranged  so  that  they  can 
be  used  at  any  time  for  repeat  ordering  by  cable. 

EFFECTIVE  METHODS  OF  ADVERTISING. 

The  commercial  advantage  obtained  by  the  United  States  in  recent 
years  should  be  followed  up  with  more  progressive  advertising  in 
Colombia,  to  assist  in  keepmg  the  new  Ajnerican  goods  before  the 
public  and  to  aid  in  the  introduction  of  new  lines  and  specialties. 

The  purchases  of  the  lower  classes  are  largely  determined  by  trade- 
marks, which  should  be  featured  in  all  advertising  in  Colombia. 
Pictures  are  the  universal  language  and  are  of  special  value  in  a 
country  where  more  than  50  per  cent  of  the  population  is  practically 
illiterate.  More  attention  is  paid  to  pictures,  especially  colored  litho- 
graphs, etc.,  than  to  anything  else,  and  a  great  volume  of  reading 
matter  is  useless.  Advertisements  of  machinery,  implements,  and 
similar  articles  should  show  them  in  actual  use  m  tropical  or  Latin 
American  surroundings  typical  of  the  country,  in  order  to  better  visual- 
ize their  application  and  operation.  Display  advertising,  calendars, 
etc.,  should  carry  a  background  of  some  local  and  well-knoAvn  statue, 
church,  or  other  edifice.  For  example,  the  equestrian  statue  of  Gen. 
Simon  Bolivar  at  Cartagena  is  well  known  all  over  South  America 
and  can  be  used  to  good  effect  as  an  allegorical  background  for 
advertisements  intended  for  not  only  Colombia  but  all  of  Latin 
America. 

The  usual  American  advertisement  carries  too  much  reading  mat- 
ter and  not  enough  pictorial  display  for  use  in  Colombia.  Every 
effort  should  be  made  to  humanize  displays,  using  "local  color"  as 
much  and  as  often  as  possible. 

Local  newspapers,  especially  the  large  dailies  of  Bogota  and  Medel- 
lin,  are  very  good  mediums,  since  they  are  all  sent  out  into  the  smaller 
towns  of  the  interior  and  are  reread  by  many  people,  who  are  as 
much  interested  in  the  pictures  and  advertisements  as  in  the  news 
and  other  reading  matter  contained.  Advertising  rates  of  the  impor- 
tant newspapers  and  other  publications  can  be  found  on  file  at  the 
Colombian  consulates  in  the  United  States,  or  at  the  new  bureau  of 
information  of  the  Colombian  Government  in  the  Bush  Terminal 
Building  in  New  York  City. 

Most  export  trade  journals  are  published  primarily  to  reach  the 
trade,  but  their  effect  on  the  consumer  in  Colombia  must  not  be 
underestimated.  All  importers  of  hardware  and  merchandise,  as 
well  as  the  larger  landowners  and  planters,  read  a  good  many  of  these 
periodicals,  and  all  advertising  matter  is  carefully  reviewed.  These 
people  are  quick  to  select  some  machine,  device,  or  new  material 
suited  to  their  needs,  and  they  often  write  immediately  for  more 
information,  though  it  is  also  usual  to  commission  an  import  dealer 


COMMERCIAL,  PRACTICES   AND  REQUIREMENTS.  359 

or  commission  house  in  New  York  to  look  up  the  matter  and  place 
the  orders.  The  trade  journals  edited  in  Spanish  are  very  well  liked 
and  are  found  in  all  offices,  clubs,  salons,  and  even  barber  shops, 
\Yhere  they  are  in  constant  demand  by  the  interested  public  of  the 
better  class. 

Outdoor  advertising  in  Colombia  is  rather  sensational  in  its  nature. 
Signs  are  painted  on  the  walls  of  buildings,  and  posters  are  also  used 
with  good  effect.  The  street  cars  of  Bogota  use  cards,  as  in  the 
United  States.  There  are  not  many  signboards  in  the  country; 
lumber  is  too  scarce,  paint  is  very  expensive,  and  traffic  is  not  heavy. 
Most  of  the  outdoor  advertising  is  in  the  towns. 

There  are  two  electric  signs  (moving)  in  Barranquilla  and  several 
good  ones  in  Bogota  and  Medellin,  these  being  a  very  recent  innova- 
tion brought  from  the  United  States  by  enterprising  native  merchants 
and  agents;  the  signs  advertise  chiefly  local  makes  of  cigarettes. 

A  new  firm  of  condition-powder  makers  in  Medellin  has  secured 
excellent  results  from  a  series  of  advertisements  of  a  vivid  caricature 
nature,  showing  always  a  sick  mule  and  a  doctor. 

Advertising  matter  is  subject  to  the  following  rates  of  duty  per 
kilo   (2.2046  pounds),  gross  weight: 

Cents. 
Advertisements  on  paper  or  cardboard,  with  or  without  illustra- 
tions and  with  or  without  cardboard  frames 2. 04 

Calendars  in  pamphlet  form  or  for  walls 1. 02 

Calendars  in  sheets 2. 04 

Advertisements  on  tin  plate 17. 34 

On  enameled  iron 20. 4 

On  copper,  bronze,  brass,  and  similar  metals 51 

Catalogues  are  admitted  free  of  import  duty. 


ALIENS— NATURALIZATION— IMMIGRATION. 

In  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Colombian  Constitution 
and  the  estabhshed  practices,  aUens  enjoy,  in  their  ordinary  rela- 
tions, the  same  prerogatives  and  rights  as  the  native  Colombians. 
There  is  no  special  or  specific  legislation  applied  to  aliens,  with  the 
exception  of  the  laws  dealing  with  the  location  of  mining  properties 
and  oil  lands. 

Aliens  can  not,  however,  exercise  any  political  rights,  because  such 
rights  would  imply  acts  of  sovereignty  enjoyable  only  bv  those  per- 
sons who  are  clearly  possessed  of  Colombian  citizenship;  but,  as  indi- 
cated below,  such  citizenship  may  be  easily  acquired  by  whoever 
wishes  to  do  so. 

Law  No.  145  of  November  26,  1888,  regulates  matters  concerning 
aliens  and  naturalization.  This  law  classifies  aliens  into  two  distinct 
groups — first,  transient  aliens;  second,  domiciled  aliens.  Those  are 
considered  as  transient  who,  finding  themselves  in  Colombia,  have  no 
established  domicile — that  is,  no  established  business  and  fixed 
residence  at  a  given  place.  Domiciled  aliens  are  those  who,  for  any 
reasons,  reside  withm  Colombian  territory,  with  some  established 
Tjusiness  or  occupation,  or  have  married  a  Colombian  woman,  or 
have  performed  any  other  act  that  implies  the  intention  of  settling 
definitely  in  the  Republic.  This  latter  status  may  be  acquired  by 
the  declaration,  before  any  political  authority  in  the  presence  of  two 
competent  witnesses,  of  tlie  intention  to  settle  in  Colombia. 

The  protection  given  in  both  cases  is  the  same  as  that  extended  to 
Colombian  citizens  by  the  laws,  and  the  obligations  of  the  aliens  con- 
sist in  conforming  their  conduct  to  the  general  police  laws  and  in  not 
meddling  in  political  affairs,  under  penalty  of  article  12  of  Law  No. 
45  of  1888. 

The  domiciled  aliens  are  not  obliged  to  pay  public  taxes  of  a  general 
nature,  either  ordinary  or  extraordinary.  Transient  aliens  are 
obliged  to  pay  only  indirect  taxes.  All  domiciled  foreigners  who 
earn  their  living  in  the  country  are  required  to  pay  income  taxes 
according  to  the  provisions  of  the  income-tax  law  oi  1918  ("  Impuesto 
sobre  la  renta")- 

In  the  matter  of  naturalization — that  is,  change  of  citizenship — 
the  law  considers  two  classes  of  persons — those  of  Latin- American 
origin  and  those  from  other  countries.  The  former,  on  account  of 
solidarity  of  race  and  common  aspirations,  are  only  required  to  ask 
the  municipal  authorities,  in  the  place  where  they  reside,  to  in- 
scribe their  name  in  the  enrollment  of  Colombian  citizens,  and  they 
thereby  acquire  the  rights  of  citizenship.  Aliens  of  other  origin  are 
required  to  petition  the  executive  department  for  papers  oi  natu- 
ralization, accompanying  the  petition  with  a  brief  giving  their  civil 
state  and  present  nationality  and  proving  that  they  have  either  a 
profession  or  other  means  of  livelihood.  As  soon  as  the  naturaliza- 
tion papers  are  issued  by  the  department  and  the  person  has  sworn 

360 


ALIENS — NATURALIZATION — IMMIGRATION.  361 

his  allegiance  to  Colombia  and  renounced  allegiance  to  his  native  land  y 
he  becomes  a  Colombian  citizen,  as  also  his  wife,  if  he  is  married,  and 
his  children  under  21  years  of  age,  if  he  has  any.  Naturalized  citi- 
zens do  not  have  to  take  up  anns  against  their  country  of  origin  in, 
the  event  of  war  between  the  two  countries,' but  are  obligated  to  the 
system  of  compulsory  military  service  in  all  other  respects. 

The  consuls  of  the  Republic  abroad  are  to-day  the  immigration 
agents  of  Colombia.  They  are  required  to  furnish  any  information, 
about  the  country  desired  oy  prospective  settlers.  The  law  considers 
as  an  immigrant  any  foreign  laborer,  artisan,  industrial  worker,  agri- 
culturist, or  professor  who  may  be  under  60  years  of  age  and  over  10 
years  of  age  and  who  may  be  able  to  prove  his  good  behavior  and  his 
skill  or  knowledge. 

Every  immigrant  must  provide  himself  with  passports  issued  by 
a  Colombian  consulate  in  the  country  from  which  he  comes.  He  is 
entitled  to  bring  in,  free  of  duty,  the  implements,  tools,  or  instruments 
of  his  calling  or  profession.  He  has  also  the  right  to  a  free  grant  of 
land  in  Colombia. 

Immigration  may  also  be  effected  by  contract  with  immigration 
companies.  East  Indians  and  "pernicious  aliens"  are  barred  from 
entry  into  the  country. 

At  the  present  time  there  is  very  little  immigration  to  Colombia. 
The  principal  influx  of  labor  is  from  the  West  Indies  to  the  banana, 

Elantations  of  Santa  Marta,  averaging  about  6,000  persons  each  year, 
ut  this  labor  is  floating  in  character  and  the  men  do  not,  as  a  rule, 
become  permanent  residents  in  Colombia. 

Studies  of  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  country  by  an  English 
expert^  Prof.  Dawe,  indicate  the  lack  of  sufficient  labor  in  many  dis- 
tricts of  the  country  (more  especially  outside  the  area  of  the  high 
table-land  of  Bogota,  which  is  the  only  place  in  Colombia  where  there 
is  sufficient  cheap  labor) ,  and  recommends  the  importation  of  Japa- 
nese coolie  labor  for  the  purpose  of  forming  agricultural  colonies  such 
as  those  in  Brazil,  the  example  of  which  is  pointed  out. 


MARKETS  FOR  SPECIFIC  CLASSES  OF  MERCHANDISE. 

TEXTILES. 

Textiles,  consisting  principally  of  cheap  cotton  goods,  constitute 
the  chief  article  of  import  of  Colombia.  Although  the  domestic 
industry  has  made  considerable  progress  during  the  last  15  years, 
the  domestic  production  does  not  supply  more  than  one-tenth  of  the 
demand.  The  native  industry  is  protected  by  a  high  tariff  on  textiles, 
and  the  prices  obtained  for  the  local  output  are  based  upon  textile 
prices  in  foreign  markets  plus  the  import  duties  and  inland  freights. 
The  protective  tariff  has  had  the  effect  of  increasing  the  cost  of  the 
domestic  article  to  the  consumer,  and  mills  have  made  large  profits 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  all  yarns  and  a  considerable  amount  of  raw 
cotton  have  to  be  imported.  The  domestic  mills  have  the  advantage 
of  cheap  labor,  the  average  wage  in  the  mills  being  between  30  and  40 
cents  per  day  of  nine  hours.  Many  of  the  larger  mills  are  installing 
dyeing  plants,  and  two  or  three  yarn-spinning  mills  are  being  erected 
or  planned  for  the  near  future  to  use  the  native  cotton.  High 
prices  and  large  profits  obtained  in  1919  have  had  the  effect  of 
attracting  additional  native  capital  to  the  cotton  industry,  and  new 
mills  are  either  being  planned  or  actually  under  way. 

Every  effort  is  being  made  to  increase  the  production  of  native 
cotton  in  the  Lower  Magdalena  River  Valley,  out  these  efforts  are 
hampered  by  the  lack  of  efficient  labor  in  the  districts  affected.  (See 
p.  199.) 

DOMESTIC  TEXTILE  INDUSTRY. 

There  are  numerous  textile  mills  in  Colombia.  Four  are  knitting 
mills  making  cheap  cotton  undershirts  for  men's  wear,  the  largest  of 
these  being  the  Fabrica  Nacional  de  Tejidos,  of  Barranquilla,  and  the 
plant  of  Espreilla  Hermanos,  of  Cartagena — the  latter  factory  also 
making  cotton  socks  and  stockings.  The  largest  cotton  mill  is  the 
F&brica  de  Tejidos  "Obregon,"  of  Barranquilla,  capitalized  at 
1,000,000  Colombian  dollars  (1  dollar  =  $0.9733  United  States  cur- 
rency) ;  this  concern  has  recently  installed  a  spinning  mill  and  a 
dyeing  plant  and  is  beginning  to  use  native  raw  cotton,  which  is 
also  gmned  at  the  plant  and  dyed  there.  The  next  largest  cotton 
mill  IS  that  of  the  Compania  Colombiana  de  Tejidos,  of  Medellin, 
originallv  capitalized  at  200,000  dollars  (since  increased).  The 
"Magdalena  mill,  in  Bogota,  is  the  only  one  in  the  country  making 
woolen  -cloth  for  suitings,  etc.  (For  details — capitalization,  produc- 
tion, etc. — of  the  textile  mills  of  Colombia,  see  the  discussions  under 
"Industries"  in  the  sections  on  the  various  commercial  districts, 
beginning  on  page  185.) 

Six  hundred  thousand  Colombian  dollars  have  been  subscribed  by 
Medellin  and  Manizales  capitalists  for  a  new  cotton  mill  in  the 
latter  city;  plans  for  this  mill  were  perfected  early  in  1919,  and 
the  machinery  and  equipment  are  now  under  order  in  the  United 
States. 

362 


MARKETS   FOR   SPECIFIC    CLASSES   OF    MERCHANDISE.  363 

As  has  been  stated,  all  domestic  mills  are  in  a  very  prosperous 
condition,  and  all  have  plans  for  expansion  and  additions  to  their 
plants,  including  spinning  departments  (for  the  utilization  of  native 
raw  cotton)  and  dyeing  plants.  There  is  an  active  demand  for  textile 
machinery,  of  which  the  American  design  and  make  is  preferred  on 
account  of  its  lighter  weight  and  more  automatic  operation  as  com- 
pared with  the  German  or  English  designs.  The  purchase  of  this 
machinery  is  effected  by  representatives  of  the  companies  coming 
to  the  United  States  and  personally  visiting  the  textile-machinery 
factories.  Interested  American  manufacturers  will  do  well  to  get 
in  touch  by  correspondence  with  all  the  Colombian  mills,  offering 
theirspeciallinesof  machinery  and  equipment  by  means  of  catalogues 
and  detailed  descriptions  of  the  features  of  their  designs. 

RELATIVE  POSITION  OF  FOREIGN  TEXTILES  IN  COLOMBIAN  MARKET. 

Since  the  early  days  of  the  Republic  there  has  been  a  large  and 
increasing  trade  in  textiles  with  England.  The  Colombian  market 
was  invaded  by  the  Germans  in  about  1870,  but  textiles  still  remained 
England's  specialty  in  Colombia  and  the  United  Kingdom  also 
shipped  most  of  the  country's  imports  of  cotton  yarns  prior  to  the 
war.  American  cotton  goods  have  gradually  found  an  excellent 
market  in  Colombia,  at  the  present  time  almost  equaling  shipments 
by  Great  Britain.  In  1919  the  American  merchandise  of  this  class 
surpassed  Great  Britain's  total  by  a  considerable  margin.  This 
condition,  however,  was  principally  due  to  Great  Britain's  inability 
to  quote  in  the  early  part  of  the  year,  except  at  high  prices  and  long 
deliveries;  and  in  tne  latter  part  of  1919  agents  for  English  textile 
houses  again  became  very  active,  quoting  firm  prices  with  credits 
ranging  from  six  to  nine  months  on  a  year's  stock  of  standard  weaves 
and  patterns.  The  exchange  situation  also  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  increasing  orders  for  English  cotton  goods,  the  Colombian 
merchants  effecting  a  saving  of  about  20  percent  (in  September,  1919) 
by  buying  London  exchange  in  New  York.  Orders  have  been 
placed  in  the  United  States  for  immediate  stocks  to  take  advantage 
of  the  active  domestic  demand  up  to  September,  1919,  and  orders  for 
English  textiles  after  that  time  were  principally  for  large  stocks  of 
standard  cotton  goods  for  the  1920  trade — placed  by  the  larger  of  the 
wholesaling  importers,  who  make  a  specialty  of  cotton  textiles. 

One  of  the  chief  attractions  of  the  English  cotton  textiles  for  the 
Colombian  importers  is  the  great  variety  of  patterns  and  designs 
furnished  in  standard  short-length  pieces.  The  average  length  is 
20  yards,  which  just  cuts  into  so  many  dress  patterns  evenly,  leaving 
no  waste  remnants;  this  can  be  conveniently  handled  in  the  trade 
of  the  interior,  where  buying  is  always  on  a  small  scale  and  in 
assorted  lots.  Another  acceptable  feature  is  the  manner  in  which 
English  goods  are  finished  and  wrapped  for  wholesale  display.  A 
bale  of  cotton  calicoes  often  contains  as  many  as  60  distinct  colors 
and  patterns,  offering  a  great  variety  for  selection  and  constituting 
a  much  wider  range  of  colors  and  designs  than  is  found  in  the  usual 
assortment  of  American  export  goods  of  similar  quality. 

Moreover,  each  20-yard  piece  is  carefully  folded  into  1-yard  lengths, 
for  easy  measuring  in  selling  or  in  taking  stock  inventory,  and  is  then 
refolded  into  four  divisions,  making  a  tight,  compact  bolt,  with  the 


364    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

wrapper  (carrying  the  display  label,  lot  and  serial  numbers,  etc.)  put 
on  lengthwise,  leaving  the  ends  exposed  for  easy  inspection  and  dis- 
play on  counters  and  at  the  same  time  protecting  the  goods  from 
shop  wear  and  dirt. 

American  calicoes  are  sent  down  in  large,  heavy  bolts  wrapped  on  a 
wooden  core  which  costs  the  importer  full  import  duty  and  which 
has  to  be  rolled  over  and  over  to  measure  the  cloth.  The  wrapping 
is  of  common  wrapping  paper,  forming  a  closed  and  tied  package, 
which,  while  it  protects  the  ends,  is  soon  torn  open  by  continuous- 
inspection  of  buyers,  becomes  useless  for  its  purpose  of  protection, 
and  presents  an  unattractive  appearance. 

Colombian  importers  complam  that  they  can  not  get  short  and 
standard-length  pieces  from  American  mills,  bolts  running  between 
43  and  72  yards,  which  wholesalers  have  to  measure  out  and  cut  into 
the  20-yard  pieces  desired  by  the  dealers  of  the  interior.  It  is  asserted 
also  that  these  goods  do  not  present  the  same  attractive  appearance 
as  the  English  textiles.  Pressed  bales  of  English  textiles  are  carefully 
marked  with  lot  and  serial  numbers,  and  all  shipments  are  accom- 
panied by  a  packing  list  and  invoice,  giving  all  details  and  permitting 
unbroken  bales  to  be  sold  at  wholesale  without  repacking  (whijch  can 
not  be  done  with  the  American  goods) . 

It  is  also  pointed  out  that  American  calicoes  do  not  cover,  in  designs, 
colors,  etc.,  the  varied  demand  in  the  several  commercial  districts  of 
the  country.  For  example,  the  people  of  the  Bogota  region  are  of 
short  stature  and  most  of  the  purchasers  prefer  goods  with  small 
figures  and  flowers,  narrow  stripes,  etc. ;  while  the  people  of  the  coast 
and  river  valleys  and  the  Indians  of  the  southern  taole-lands  want 
bright  goods,  plenty  of  sharp  color,  and  large  designs  and  figures. 
American  cheap  calicoes  come  in  dull  shades,  with  few  patterns,  and 
do  not  allow  ot  the  same  selection.  Colombian  importers,  anxious  to 
obtain  the  same  lines  from  the  United  States  that  have  become 
popular  in  Colombia  when  received  from  Europe,  have  brought  well- 
selected  linos  from  England  to  New  York,  especially  to  show  them  to 
American  makers  with  the  idea  of  persuading  the  Americans  to 
manufacture  the  same  goods  and  to  put  them  up  in  the  same  way. 
Not  much  success  has  been  attained  in  the  past,  American  manufac- 
turers claiming  that  the  manufacturing  cost  would  be  too  high. 

In  this  regard  it  would  appear  as  if  tne  trade  in  textiles  with  all  of 
Latin  America  should  be  considered  sufficient  to  iustifv  changes  neces- 
sary in  order  to  meet  the  importer's  ideas.  An  inspection  of  any 
Colombian  importing  wholesaler's  showroom  affords  convincing  proof 
of  the  better  impression  made  by  the  European  goods  upon  Duyers 
entering  the  display  room.  The  American  goods  can  be  picked  out 
at  a  glance  and  suffer  in  comparison  with  the  English,  which  are 
put  up  to  attract  and  are  preferred,  for  this  reason,  by  the  large 
importers. 

EXCLUSIVE  BRANDS— PROTECTION  OF  LARGE  IMPORTERS. 

Another  reason  for  the  preference  for  English  textiles  lies  in  the 
protection  of  certain  of  the  large  importers  whose  orders  run  into 
many  thousands,  of  dollars  annually.  Special  weaves  and  patterns  of 
calicoes,  prints,  bleached  and  unbleached  whites  and  sheetings  are 
made  up  year  by  year  for  one  large  importer  of  a  certain  commercial 


MARKETS   FOR   SPECIFIC   CLASSES   OF    MERCHANDISE.  365 

■center,  who  takes  100  bales,  or  1,000  bales,  or  some  other  "quantity, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  business  is  staple,  standard,  and  well  suited 
to  the  mills  of  Europe ;  and  orders  can  be  estimated  in  advance  over 
an  enormous  territory.  The  lar^e  importer's  own  brand,  which  he  has 
succeeded  in  making  popular  in  his  district  among  his  clientele,  is  put 
on  the  goods,  and  mills  (jobbers)  refuse  to  sell  this  brand  to  any  com- 
petitor in  that  particular  district.  These  special  brands  are  the  im- 
porter's specialties  and  the  principal  line  carried  year  by  year — making 
a  stable  business.  The  richest  firms  of  Colombia,  long  established 
and  possessing  adequate  capital,  often  handle  few  articles  other  than 
these  special  brands,  and  do  a  large  wholesale  business.  This  is 
especially  true  of  firms  in  Bogota. 

CLASS  AND  QUALITY  OF  TEXTILES. 

European  textiles  are  well  suited  to  the  policy  of  the  Colombian  mer- 
chants. Widths  are  narrower,  as  a  rule,  than  in  the  American  cloth, 
and  the  cloth  itself  is  lighter  in  weight  (less  thread)  and  finished  (that 
is,  surfaced  and  glazed),  thus  appearing  to  have  the  body  and  weight 
that  it  does  not  really  possess.  This  lact,  combined  with  the  great 
variety  of  patterns  and  colors  and  the  attractive  method  of  presenta- 
tion, gives  the  importer  a  great  advantage,  since  these  goods  cost  him 
less  and  are  sold  at  a  larger  margin  of  profit  than  is  the  case  with  the 
American  textiles  that  lack  this  finish  and  are  heavier  (more  threads 
to  the  inch). 

However,  the  people  of  the  country  have  discovered  that  American 
calicoes,  while  not  as  superficially  attractive  when  new,  wear  better 
in  the  end.  There  is  gradually  growing  an  insistent  demand  for 
'' Americanas,"  and  it  may  be  predicted  that  merchants  will  be  forced 
to  carry  in  stock  a  certain  amount  of  American  cotton  goods  to  supply 
this  demand  in  the  future. 

Domestic  mills  turn  out  rough,  strong,  unfinished  cloths — calicoes, 
drills,  unbleached  white  goods,  etc. — very  well  suited  to  the  use  of 
the  lower  classes  and  enjoying  a  great  demand,  especiall}^  as  regards 
the  rough,  heavy  drills  used  for  blouses,  trousers,  etc. 

There  is  a  strong  demand  for  the  better  grades  of  khaki  cotton  cloth 
for  tropical  suitings,  Palm  Beach  cloth,  linen  suitings,  drills,  etc., 
and  for  the  cheaper  grades  of  heavy  shirtings  and  the  like.  There  is 
also  an  increasing  demand  for  the  medium  grades  of  percales,  muslins, 
voiles,  ginghams,  piques,  poplins,  madras  (white  and  fancy),  brocades, 
denims,  cashmeres,  and  many  grades  of  "whites,"  as  well  as  towelings, 
etc. 

Each  commercial  district  should  be  studied,  with  respect  to 
climatic  conditions,  etc.,  to  determine  the  lines  best  suited  for  that 
particular  district.  Cotton  prints  and  rouc^h  drills  are  sold  all  over 
the  country  in  all  climates,  however,  and  do  not  vary  much,  except 
in  cotton  prints  in  colors  and  designs  for  women's  dresses,  as  pointed 
•out. 

STATISTICS  OF  IMPORTS. 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  the  variety  and  relative  values  of  the 
textile  lines  imported  by  Colombia,  the  following  table  is  presented, 
from  the  1916  import  returns  of  the  Colombian  Government. 


366      COLOMBIA:   a   COMMEftCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

[Colombian  dollar-SO.9733.] 


Articles. 


Baize,  tartan,  and  outing  flannels 

Bedspreads,  cotton 

Bedspreads,  curtains,  etc 

Belts,  cloth 

Blankets,  cotton 

Blouses,  waists,  etc.,  fancy 

"  Bogotanas" 

Brocades 

Buttons,  clotli-covered 

Calicoes 

Cambrics,  batistes,  etc.,  cotton 

Canvas 

Canvas  for  oil  paintmg  and  interior 

decoration 

Canvas  and  drills  (white  finished)  . . . 

Caps,  cloth 

"  Carolinas  " I 

Chemises,  of  knitted  goods,  whether  oti 
not  they  are  adorned  with  cords  and! 

embroideries  of  sUk ! 

Cloth: 

Cotton,  knit 

Diagonal,  striped 

Embroidered 

For  bookbinding , 

Unbleached 

Clothing: 

Knitted  ("  ropa  exterior ") 

Outer,  for  men 

Outer ,  for  women ,  of  various  mate- 
rials— 

Plain 

Fancy 

Rubberized  waterproof 

Collars,  lace  and  fancy , 

Collars  and  culTs,  plaui , 

Cord  and  string,  c«tton , 

Cord  and  trimmings 

Cords  for  nets,  etc 

Cord  of  less  than  1  centimeter 

Corsets 

Corset  covers 

Cotton  waste 

Crinoline,  white,  for  iaterlimngs 

Curtains: 

Knitted  or  lace 

Plain 

Denims 

"  Domestics,"  unbleached 

Dress  trimmings 

"Driles,"  for  mattresses,  etc 

"Driles": 

Striped  and  colored 

Various 

Elastic: 

For  garters 

For  shoes 

Fancy  cotton  goods,  various 

Finishing  braids 

Flowers,  artificial 

"  Foulalis,"  blue 

Frames  for  women's  hats 

Fringe  and  braid  for  furniture 

Garters 

Girdles,  etc 

Gloves,  cotton 

Handkerchiefs: 

Embroidered 

Plain,  with  border 

In  piece 


Value. 


Colmrtbian 

dollar*. 

82,805 

58,623 

1,192 

22 

130,663 

1,393 

1,184,155 

28,550 

185 

1,065 

48,321 

75,916 

4,166 

5,265 

649 

76,299 


8,804 

9,389 

31,283 

58,730 

1,114 

252,458 

802 
29,683 


9,222 

6,822 

1,574 

205 

28,279 

14,405 

10, 893 

47, 145 

27,138 

20,307 

774 

3,371 

757 

7,024 
1,430 
8,914 

302,080 
8,026 

189, 778 

17,093 
603,845 

374 
1,670 
10,797 
61,911 
1,364 
4,164 

625 
5,277 
3,334 

109 

267 

1,321 

145, 168 

6,398 


Articles. 


Hammocks 

Hats: 

Men's 

Women's,  with  silk  trimmings 

Hat  trimmings 

Hose 

Laces,  fringes,  etc 

Linoleum 

Madras 

Mattress  linings 

Muslins 

Neckties,  cotton 

Oilcloth  for  furniture 

Ornaments  for  garments 

Packing  covering 

Pillows 

Pillow  covers,  fancy 

Ponchos: 

Water  proof 

Cotton 

Prints,  cotton 

Ribbons,  braid,  etc 

Ribbon  or  tape,  narrow 

Rugs  and  carpets  and  materiaJs  for 

making  them 

Sacks,  of  varnished  or  rubberized  cloth, 

for  packing 

SandaLs,  clotn  (" alpargatas") 

Sateens 

Shawls  and  wraps 

Shawls,  square,  large 

Sheets,  plain  and  fancy 

Shirts,  men's  with  or  withoutcufls 

Shoes,  of  cotton  cloth 

Shoe  findings,  cotton 

Silk  mixtures  (25  per  cent),  striped. . . 

Stockings 

Striped  goods 

Suspenders  and  garters,  men's 

Tablecloths  and  napkins 

Table  covers  and  bedspreads,  cflace. . . 

Table  covers,  plain 

Tape,  girth,  of  canvas 

Tape,  rubberized 

Thread  on  spools  and  spindles 

Thread  for  crocheting 

Towels 

Undergarments,  etc. ,  white: 

With  embroidery 

Other 

Underwear: 

Knit,  of  cotton 

Not  knit 

Uniforms: 

For  the  Colombian  Army 

For  the  Military  Band 

Umbrellas 

Velvet,  cotton 

Vichy  cloth , 

White  and  colored  goods  not  elsewhere 

specified 

Wicking  cord 

Wicks: 

For  tinder  boxes 

For  lamps 

Yarns: 

Bleached 

Unbleached 

Dyed 

Zephyrs 


Value. 


Colomi  ian 
dalhm. 

202 

9,410 

847 

21 

459- 

145, 141 

4,677 

17,669 

14,797 

12,260 

1,918 

4,13(y 

26 

30,568 

269' 

144 

606 

9,68? 

2,730,399 

10,608- 

1,827 

1,348 

13,609 

1,176 

88,217 

268 

55,552 

70» 

120,543 

6,000 

1,025- 

35,299 

224,595 

18,792 

14,382 

1,697 

170 

621 

769 

1,711 

580,960' 

28& 

20,544 

6,514 
982 

101,981 
2,798. 

49,  sot 
986 
22,181 
13,511 
6,27S 

1,236,65& 
75,295^ 

84,967 
12,582 

73,783 
375, 518 
590,002 

73,505^ 


The  above  list  is  not  complete,  and  it  shows  only  articles  of  cotton. 

Imports  of  woolen  goods  of  various  kinds  amounted  to  1,992,905 
Colombian  dollars  in  1916,  of  which  the  principal  items  were:  Woolen 
cloth  for  suitings,  686,208  Colombian  aoUars;  ready-made  clothing, 
54,959  dollars;  woolen  cloth  for  women's  suitings,  468,155  dollars; 
and  felt  hats,  144,041  dollars.     Most  of  the  felt  hats  came  from  Italy, 


MARKETS   FOR   SPECIFIC    CLASSES   OF    MERCHANDISE. 


367 


The  total  imports  of  textiles  in  1916  amounted  to  13,476,932 
Colombian  dollars,  as  compared  with  8,025,057  in  1911,  a  pre-war  year. 

Exports  of  textiles  from  the  United  States  to  Colombia  during 
four  recent  years  are  shown  below : 


Textiles. 

Fiscal  year  1916. 

Fiscal  year  1917. 

Calendar  year 
1918. 

Calendar  year 
1919. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Yards. 

Value. 

Cotton,  manufactures  of: 
Blankets  and  comforts  i. . . 

$56,568 
45,789 

$182  919 

Cloths- 
Duck— 
Unbleached  2 

189,566 
58,947 
14,321 

4,977,213 
5,896,992 
9,616,577 
988,683 
10,541,331 

$59,854 
16,287 
4,523 

309,818 

435,390 

625,082 

104,6)6 

1,073,438 

25,665 

3,156 

52,117 

22,322 

7,9.55 

4,390,854 
2,098,571 
4,621,778 
2,069,251 
1,648,722 

185  460 

122  007 

Bleached' 

9,959       32,654 
4,103       15,0)5 

513,36110,675,193 
312,904  7,087,300 
609,931  18,955,159 
402,473  4,755.728 
30S,  616  4, 294;  434 
6  854 

23  327 

Colored  * 

;;:;;:;:;■:::: 

7' 516 

All  other  cloths- 
Unbleached  

5,082,510 
6,749,614 
13,962,904 
514,621 
7,251,929 

$297,207 

365,963 

694,670 

40,581 

478,998 

19, 743 

2,806 

1  331  588 

Bleached .... 

1' 113' 1.52 

Prmted 

2' 429' 415 

Dyed  in  the  piece 

Dyedintheyam 

Laces  and  embroideries. . . 

1;  038^971 

1,014,810 

14  850 

Mill  waste 

3,910 

3  657 

Rags  (except  paperstock). 

205 

Thread,  sewing,  crochet, 
etc.  6 

13,936 

2,698 
18,510 

66,153 
13,273 
1,076 

66,550 

6,991 
326,088 
178,505 

15  721 

Wearing  apparel- 
Collars  and  cuffs' 

4,394 
12  084 

Corsets 

18,384 
111,499 

173,626 

135,766 
267,949 

14,986 
173,988 

222,571 

329,094 
394.938 

Knit  goods— 
Hosiery 

I 

Ie;;;; 
1= 

138, 636 

Underwear 

46  846 

Another 

J 

1 

331 

All  other  apparel— 
For  men  and  boys 

73,118 

For  women  and  chil- 

dren  

9  882 

Yam 

597  857 

Another 

353',  373 

Total  manufactures  of 
cotton 

2,607,192 

3,793,316 

2,968,248 js,  534, 659 

Silk,  manufactures  of: 
Dress  goods 

1 

30,940 

J     11,768 

{::;;:::: 

9,670       2.5  .1.50       34  ^fS^ 

Wearing  apparel 

32, 613 

I          689 

3,810 
7,802 

845 
934 

3,807 

AU  other 



1 

44,310 

Silk,  artifleial: 
Hosiery 

2,552 

AU  other' 

696 

Total  manufactures  of 
silk    and    artificial 
silk 

30,940 

33,302 

23,061 

85,548 

Wool,  manufactures  of: 
Blankets  « 

313 
143,696 

7,852 

6,554 

221 

Cloth  and  dre.ss  goods  s. . . 

:::::::::::;:;:;::.::;  :;:i:::::::: 

211,461 

Wearing  apparel— 

1 

i 

53,315] 

19,097 

For   women   and  chil- 

17,892 

dren 

4.357 

Woolen  rags 

1 

76 

16 

Another 

353,501 

308,052 

15,107 

17,801 

Total  manufactures  of 
wool 

■          1 
371,393 361,443 

173,522 

252,953 

3,009,525 

4,188,061 

3,164,831 

8,873,160 

1  Included  in  "All  other  manufactures"  prior  to  1918. 

» Included  in  "All  other  cloths,  unbjeached,"  prior  to  1917. 

3  Included  in  "All  other  cloths,  bleached."  prior  to  1917. 

<  Included  in  "All  other  cloths,  colored,"  "Printed,"  "Dyed  in  the  piece,"  etc.,  prior  to  1917. 

5  Included  in  "All  other  manufactures"  prior  to  1918. 

« Included  in  "All  other  wearing  apparer '  prior  to  1918. 

'  Included  in  "All  other  articles"  prior  to  1917. 

8  Included  in  "All  other  manufactures  of"  prior  to  191^. 


368    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

According  to  Colombian  statistics,  imports  of  textiles  of  all  classes 
into  Colombia  during  1918  amounted  to  9,587,892  Colombian  dollars, 
of  which  Great  Britain  furnished  2,857,956  kilos,  valued  at  5,033,569 
dollars;  the  United  States  2,251,664  kilos,  valued  at  3,557,996  dollars: 
France,  59,401  dollars;  Spain,  144,975  kilos,  valued  at  354,174 
dollars;  and  Italy,  108,958  kilos,  valued  at  287,287  dollars.  (Kilo  = 
2.2046  pounds.) 

PACKING  OF  TEXTILES  FOR  COLOMBIA. 

The  pressed  bale,  waterproofed,  etc.,  must  be  adopted  by  all 
American  exporters  of  textiles  to  Colombia,  in  sizes  to  conform  to  the 
transportation  necessities  of  the  country,  smaller  bales  being  put  up 
for  mule  transport,  etc.,  as  indicated  on  page '388. 

More  care  should  be  taken  in  invoicing  and  billing,  and  packing 
lists  should  be  provided  for  all  shipmeots  so  that  the  contents  of  each 
bale  can  be  known  without  unpacking  and  verifying. 

To  increase  the  trade  in  textiles  with  Colombia,  it  is  recommended 
that  American  exporters  adopt  more  nearly  the  English  system 
throughout,  whenever  manufacturing  conditions  make  this  possible — 
putting  up  20-yard  standard  bolts,  better  presented  for  display  by 
the  importing  wholesalers,  as  explained  above. 

Colombian  importers  admit  that  great  progress  has  been  made  in 
the  American  wnite-goods  lines,  there  being  greater  variety,  cheaper 
prices,  and  better  finish  than  was  formerly  the  case.  These  goods 
now  compete  very  favorably  with  the  English  white  goods  throughout 
Colombia  and  are  well  liked  by  both  importers  and  consumers. 

COMMERCIAL  PRACTICES  IN  TEXTILE  TRADE. 

Colombian  importers  of  textiles  allow  long  credits  to  dealers  of  the 
interior,  the  system  being  what  is  known  as  ''six  and  six,"  meaning 
six  months  and  six  months  more  if  necessary,  the  first  six  months 
being  net,  with  a  15  per  cent  reduction  for  cash  with  orders.  The 
additional  six  inonths  carries  an  interest  charge  of  10  per  cent  per 
annum,  compounded  monthly.  These  same  terms  are  given  by  the 
domestic  mills,  some  of  which  maintain  their  own  sales  department 
with  branch  stores  in  the  various  commercial  centers,  while  others 
sell  through  agents  or  jobbers.  Profits,  net  to  importer,  on  standard 
textiles,  such  as  cheap  cotton  prints,  are  figured  at  25  per  cent,  as  an 
average.  The  market  is,  at  times,  highly  speculative,  and  merchants 
who  took  advantage  of  the  reduction  in  prices  of  American  textiles 
during  the  early  months  of  1919,  and  laid  in  large  stocks,  reaped 
enormous  profits,  disposing  of  their  stocks  during  the  rush  of  buymg 
in  May,  June,  and  July.  Most  of  the  older  and  more  conservative 
houses,  however,  failed  to  understand  the  real  situation  in  Europe 
and  the  United  States  and  were  caught  without  stocks  when  the  Cfo- 
lombian  market  reacted  in  May,  1919. 

DRUGS,  MEDICINES,  AND  OTHER  CHEMICALS. 

Next  to  textiles,  foodstuffs,  and  the  articles  included  under  "arts 
and  trades,"  the  imports  of  drugs,  medicines,  and  other  chemicals 
form  the  most  important  item.  The  sale  of  patent  medicines  is 
large,  and  many  well-known  and  advertised  American  specifics  are 


MAKKETS   FOR   SPECIFIC   CLASSES  OF   MERCHANDISE.  369 

sold  all  over  the  country.  Imports  of  drugs,  medicines,  and  chemicals 
in  1911,  a  pre-war  year,  amounted  to  762,208  Colombian  dollars,  of 
which  Germany  furnished  127,912  dollars,  Spain  1,354  dollars,  the 
United  States  327,832  dollars,  France  154,004  dollars,  Great  Britain 
109,010  dollars,  and  other  countries  41,976  dollars.  Imports  of 
drugs,  medicines,  and  chemicals  for  industrial  purposes  in  1916 
amounted  to  1,346,516  Colombian  dollars,  of  whicn  weU-known 
patent  medicines  were  valued  at  353,642  dollars.  The  1918  imports 
amounted  to  994,032  dollars,  the  importation  being  somewhat  cur- 
tailed bv  war  conditions.  Not  enough  heavy  chemicals  could  be 
obtained  during  the  war. 

Colombia  imports  heavy  chemicals  used  in  soap  making,  candle 
making,  etc.,  the  principal  ones  being  caustic  soda,  bicarbonate  of 
soda,  bichromate  of  soda,  oxalic  acid,  carbonate  of  ammonia,  copper 
sulphate,  nitrate  of  soda,  bichromate  of  potash,  and  sulphur  (both 
powdered  and  in  sticks) . 

USE  AND  PACKING  OF  CHEMICALS. 

Caustic  soda  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  and 
also  by  the  three  glassware  factories  of  the  country.  It  is  shipped 
into  Colombia  packed  in  drums  of  725  pounds  net  (746  gross),  which 
measure  8^  cubic  feet.  The  standard  is  76/78  per  cent,  New  York 
and  Liverpool  tests.  When  required  for  mule  transport  into  the 
interior  towns,  drums  of  125  pounds  net  are  used.  Soda  ash  (dense), . 
which  can  be  used  as  a  substitute,  is  not  much  employed  in  Colombia. 

Bichromate  of  soda  is  used  hj  the  textile  industry  and  is  ordinarily 
wanted  in  small  5  and  10  kilo  tms,  instead  of  the  usual  heavy  wooden 
barrels. 

Oxalic  acid  is  used  for  bleaching  the  Panama  hats  of  the  country 
and  in  the  drug  industrv.  For  the  coast  and  Bogota  districts  it  can 
be  packed  in  the  usual  barrels  of  300  pounds  net  (350  gross),  of 
about  9  cubic  feet.  In  the  case  of  orders  for  interior  points  using 
mule  transport,  the  oxalic  acid  is  desired  in  5  and  10  kilo  tins,  or 
smaU  metal  drums. 

Carbonate  of  ammonia  is  used  by  the  baking  industr^^  and  comes 
packed  in  barrels  of  430  pounds  net  (500  gross),  measuring  10  cubic 
feet.     For  the  interior  markets,  small  5  and  10  kilo  tins  are  wanted. 

Copper  sulphate  (bluestone)  is  used  in  Colombia  for  spraying  coffee 
and  cacao  trees  and  is  wanted  in  small  drums  of  not  more  than  125 
pounds  net  weight  or  in  5  and  10  kilo  tins. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  used  by  the  textile  industry  and  for  garden 
fertilization,  though  the  latter  use  is  very  limited  in  Colombia.  The 
usual  form  for  Colombia  is  the  crystals  packed  in  cloth  sacks  of  125 
pounds  net  weight. 

White  and  amorphous  phosphorus  is  much  used  for  match  making 
all  over  the  country,  and  should  be  packed  in  5-kilo  tins  in  water. 

These  heavy  chemicals  are  handled  by  all  large  importers  of  general 
merchandise  and  also  by  a  few  of  the  larger  drug  stores  doing  chiefly 
a  wholesale  business.  As  a  rule,  orders  in  the  United  States  are 
placed  through  the  export  commission  houses. 

37558°— 21 24 


370     COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 


STATISTICS  OF  IMPORTS. 


The  principal  drug  and  chemical  lines  imported  in  1916  are  shown 
in  the  lollowmg  list,  in  order  that  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  relative 
values : 

ICoIombian  doUarc^SO-OTSS.] 


Articles. 


Acids: 

Carbonic 

Citric  and  tartaric 

Sulphuric 

Aspirin 

Boxes,  wood,  tin,  and  cardboard,  for 

drug  packing 

Chemicals,  industrial,  etc 

Corks 

Cotton,  medicated 

Cream  of  tartar 

Creolin 

Cyanides 

Glycerin 

Gimi  arable 

Gums,  resinous 

Injections,  medicinal 

Magnesia 

Medicines  in  capsules,  etc 

Oils: 

Castor  and  nut 

Cod-liver,  emulsions 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
11,831 
12,053 
7,252 
17,071 

8,264 

9,326 

51,558 

7,982 

6,521 

23,695 

52,808 

6,871 

15,701 

10,598 

8,307 

8,217 

22,242 

15,771 
81,226 


Articles. 


Opium ■. 

Phosphorus: 

Red 

White 

Plasters,  medicinal 

Potassium  chlorate 

Soaps: 

Medicinal,  not  perfumed 

Perfumed,  medicinal  or  other 

Renter  soap 

Quinine 

Soda: 

Bicarbonate 

Carbonate 

Caustic 

other  soda  salts  and  other  salts 

not  specified 

Sulphur,  flowers  of 

Wines,  medicinal 

Other  chemical  products,  various 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 
17,249 

4,296 

6,645 

9,385 

36,001 

4,328 
12,544 
16,097 
23,948 

5,117 
15,034 
72,513 

6,647 

6,972 

12,869 

149,307 


Exports  of  drugs,  chemicals,  and  related  articles  from  the  United 
States  to  Colombia  in  the  calendar  years  1918  and  1919  were  as 
follows : 


Articles. 


Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and 
medicines: 
Acids- 
Carbolic 

Nitric 

Picric 

Sulphuric 

Another 

Alcohol,  wood 

Baking  powder 

Calcium  carbide 

Coal-tar  distillates, n.e.s.. 
Copper,  sulphate  of  (blue 

vitriol) 

Dyes  and  dyestufls— 

Aniline  dyes 

Logwood  extract 

Another 

Extracts  for  tanning 

Formaldehyde  (formalin). 

Glycerin 

Infants'  food 

Lime,    chloride    of,    or 
bleaching  powder 


Value. 


1918 


12,393 
3,807 


261 


1919 


S2,196 
6,281 
62 


10,708 

2,913 

33,675 

40,403 

108 

4,054 

809 

2,896 

1,560 

2,824 

236 

7,420 

449 

1,431 

16,070 

35,247 

237 

2,176 

16,300 

23,691 

1,760 

2,909 

210 

2,257 

3,115 

7,975 

7,555 

12,236 

156 


Articles. 


Chemicals,  drugs,  dyes,  and 
medicines— Continued . 
Medicinal  and    pharma- 
ceutical preparations . . . 

Petroleum  jelly,  etc 

Potash- 
Chlorate 

Another 

Roots,  herbs,  and  barks  . . 
Soda- 
Caustic 

Sal  soda 

Silicate  of  soda 

All  other  salts  of. 

Sulphur  or  brimstone 

Washing  powder  and  fluid 

All  other  chemicals,  etc. . 

Cork,  and  manufactures  of. . . . 

Dental  goods 

Druggists'  rubber  sundries — 

Perfumeries,  cosmetics,  and 

all  toilet  preparations 


Value. 


1918 


J328,718 
5,525 

4,911 
4,913 
4,733 

79,956 

1,214 

875 

21,139 

472 

482 

191,002 

9,734 

19,490 

1,941 

28,446 


1919 


1722,527 
12,362 

21,837 
19,059 
10,303 

62,025 

190 

7,121 

43.910 

491 

407 

598,233 

30,861 

21,977 

9,154 

70,137 


French  hypodermic  preparations  are  very  well  known  and  most 
used  in  Colombia,  though  certain  Italian  brands  are  also  becoming 
well  introduced.  There  is  a  wide  market  for  these  preparations  in 
Colombia.     It  is  thought  that  American  laboratories  will  find  the 


MARKETS    FOR   SPECIFIC    CLASSES   OF   MERCHANDISE. 


371 


field  a  valuable  one,  and  it  is  recommended  that  the  sale  of  American 
laboratory  products  be  pushed. 

Patent  medicines  and  specifics  find  a  large  market  and  are  often 
handled  bv  exclusive  agents  who  travel  over  the  entire  country. 
The  specincs  are  mostly  for  malarial  diseases,  tropical  anemia, 
dysentery,  etc.,  and  tonics  of  various  kinds  enjoy  a  large  sale.  Very 
often  drug  stores  are  owned  and  managed  by  resident  ph^^sicians. 

About  75  per  cent  of  the  advertising  of  the  country  is  of  patent 
medicines. 

PAPER  AND  PAPER  PRODUCTS. 

Imports  of  paper  and  paper  products  into  Colombia  in  1916 
amounted  to  3,889,295  kilos,  valued  at  913,502  Colombian  dollars. 
This  amount  included  all  paper,  cardboard,  school  books  and  sup- 
plies, and  office  supplies  and  equipment,  other  than  furniture.  In 
1918  Colombia's  imports  of  paper  and  paper  products  amounted  to 
710,690  dollars,  the  imports  having  fallen  on  after  the  entrance  of 
the  United  States  into  the  war.  In  1919  there  was  a  shortage  of 
paper  all  over  the  country,  and  buying  in  this  line  was  very  active 
after  the  armistice.  Following  are  the  more  important  items  in  this 
group  for  1916,  the  most  recent  year  for  which  detailed  statistics  are 
available : 

[Colombian  dollar=$0.9733.] 


Articles. 


Value. 


Advertisements  on  paper 

Bags,  paper 

Books: 

Accounting 

Copy  (wet  copies) 

Other  (printed  matter) 

Cardboard: 

Boxes 

Other  objects,  mache,  etc 

Plain 

Cash  registers 

Check-perforating  machines 

Cigarette  package  labels 

Cigarettepaper 

Comptometers  and  adding  machines 


Colombian 
dollar  ». 
9,799 
5,937 

11,958 
11, 141 
54,924 

30,165 
14, 277 
18,514 
24,243 

6,211 
11,241 
63, 971 

2,062 


Articles. 


Envelopes: 

"Window  "  type 

Other 

Labels,  printed 

Letter  and  account  paper 

Office  supplies,  small 

O  fflcial  paper 

Oleographs,  chromolithographs,  etc 

Prmt  paper 

Sand  and  emery  paper 

Telegraph  and  check  forms 

Typewriters 

Wall  paper 

Wrapping  paper 


Value. 


Colombian 
dollars. 

2,415 
34,418 
43,760 
14,794 

7,255 
18, 576 

9,417 
90,460 

9,469 
10,782 
95,461 
38,825 
87,404 


On  account  of  the  high  import  duty  on  cut  and  printed  paper, 
there  are  many  small  shops  that  import  the  better  grades  of  paper 
suitable  for  writing  pads,  etc.,  in  standard  sheets  and  then  cut  them 
up  and  rule  them  for  the  domestic  trade.  Nearly  all  importers  of 
general  merchandise  buy  certain  amounts  of  paper,  such  as  print 
paper,  wall  paper,  writing  blocks,  etc.,  which  they  handle  at  wholesale 
and  retail.  The  largest  stationery  stores  in  the  countir,  with  branches 
in  Cartagena,  Barranquilla,  and  Bogota,  are  those  of  J.  V.  Mogollon 
y  Cia. 


372    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 


Exports  of  paper,  paper  products,  and  ink  from  the  United  States 
to  Colombia  dunng  four  recent  years  have  been  as  follows: 


Articles. 


Fiscal  y( 
19K 


Pounds.  Value, 


Fiscal  year 
1917. 


Pounds.  Value, 


Calendar  year 
1918. 


Pounds  Value 


Calendar  year 
1919. 


Pounds.  Value 


Paper: 
Bags 

Books,  music,  maps,  engrav- 
ings, and  other  prmted  matter 

Boxes  and  cartons 

Carbon  paper 

Cash-register  and  adding-ma- 
chine  paper ' 

Paper  board  and  straw-board. . 

Paper  hangings 

Playing  cards 

Printing  paper — 

News  print 

All  other 

Tissue  and  toilet  paper' 

Towels  and  napkins' 

Wax  paper' 

Wrapping  paper 

Writuig  paper  and  envelopes. . . 

All  other 


(3,591 

237,974 
6,110 
2,017 


$5,600 

113,932 

11,275 

794 


1,437,537 
685,463 


11,723 

12,616 

539 

36,115 
33,711 


3,307,996 
1,881,711 


24,013 

22,797 

413 

135,360 
155,294 


832,986 
561,986 


838,627 


749, 764 
40,340 
81.220 


39,907 


52,606 
78,544 
87,682 


888,583 


S5,834 

64,804 
6,524 
1,705 

139 
12,557 
10,835 

252 

45, 416 
61,005 

9,344 
460 

2,100 
79,518 
89,744 
25,042 


1,279,681 
941,809 


871,737 


$11,592 

2a5,129 
8,638 
3,399 

1,812 
20,666 
14,735 

1,173 

75, 437 
109,359 
29,410 
1,375 
1,606 
83,672 
175,932 
67,309 


Total  paper  and  manu- 
factures of 


Ink: 

Printers' . 
All  other. 


1,215,620 


688,310   1415,279 


811,274 


7,195 
8,241 


12,035 
11,220 


5,479 
7,831 


8,405 
24,260 


'  Included  in  "All  other"  prior  to  1918. 

In  1919  there  was  a  very  large  shortage  of  paper  and  paper  prod- 
ucts in  Colombia,  and  buymg  in  the  United  States  was  heavy  during 
that  year. 

The  chief  complaints  were  caused  by  bad  packing  methods.  News 
print  shipped  in  flats,  rolled,  should  nave  tne  ends  of  the  packages 
protected  with  round  boards  to  prevent  damage  in  handling,  because, 
if  the  ends  are  frayed,  the  shipment  can  not  oe  used  for  news  print 
and  a  loss  to  the  importer  results. 

Other  higher-grade  papers,  used  for  cutting  into  pads,  blocks, 
accounting  forms,  etc.,  should  be  packed  in  the  pressed  crate  with 
flat,  light  boards  at  top  and  bottom  extending  over  the  edges  and 
with  straps  at  the  sides  and  ends.  Bracing  cleats  at  top  and  Dottom 
should  be  nailed  on  from  the  inside  out  and  not  from  the  outside  in, 
since  the  former  method  prevents  the  clinched  nail  from  working 
loose  and  cutting  into  the  contents  of  the  pressed  crate. 

Several  American  manufacturers  of  paper  and  paper  products, 
controlling  large  factories,  have  recently  investigated  tne  Colombian 
markets  for  paper  in  all  forms,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  these  first- 
hand investigations  by  experts  in  the  line  will  result  in  better  pack- 
ing methods,  suitable  to  the  transportation  requirements  of  the 
country. 

Except  for  cardboard-boxed  envelopes  and  small  paper  articles, 
the  usual  wooden  packing  case  should  not  be  used  for  Colombia, 
since,  no  matter  how  well  packed  inside,  the  contents,  during  many 
handlings,  have  some  movement  which  damages  them  more  or  less 
seriously  in  time.     The  pressed  crate,  as  described,  is  the  better 


MARKETS   FOR»SPECIFIC   CLASSES   OF   MERCHANDISE,  37S 

metjiod,  and  this  packing  is  also  lighter,    effecting   a  considerable 
saving  in  duties  for  the  importer. 

CONSTRUCTION  MATERIALS  AND  MACHINERY— FURNITURE. 

For  a  comprehensive  account  of  the  Colombian  markets  for  build- 
ing materials  and  equipment,  the  reader  may  be  referred  to  the 
monograph  entitled  ''Construction  Materials  and  Machinery  in 
Colombia,"  by  W.  W.  Ewing,  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign 
and  Domestic  Commerce  as  Special  Agents  Series  No.  160.  This 
contains  75  pages  and  5  halftone  illustrations  and  may  be  obtained 
for  15  cents  from  any  of  the  district  or  cooperative  offices  of  the 
Bureau  or  from  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Government 
Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C. 

''Colombian  Markets  for  American  Furniture,"  by  Harold  E. 
Everley,  issaed  by  the  Bureau  as  Special  Agents  Series  No.  162,  sells 
for  5  cents.     It  has  34  pages  of  text. 


APPENDIXES. 


Appendix  A.— REQUIREMENTS  TO  BE  OBSERVED  IN  SfflPPING 
GOODS  TO  COLOMBIA.' 

BILLS  OF  LADING. 

A  set  of  five  copies  of  the  bill  of  lading  is  to  be  presented  at  the 
steamship  company's  office  the  day  before  the  steamer  sails,  together 
with  one  copy  of  the  consular  invoice. 

To  one  copy  of  the  bill  of  lading  for  shipments  going  to  Buenaven- 
tura and  Tumaco  must  be  attached  a  20-cent  Colombian  revenue 
stamp,  which  is  obtainable  at  the  Colombian  consulate  (17  Battery 
Place,  in  New  York), 

Each  bill  of  lading  must  contain:  Name  of  shipper,  name  of  con- 
signee at  the  port  of  entry,  name  of  steamer,  number  of  each  package, 
number  of  packages  of  different  kinds,  weight  (gross)  in  kilos  (1 
kilo  =  2.2  pounds),  and  total  value  of  shipment. 

The  bills  of  lading — two  or  more  copies — are  returned  by  the 
steamship  company  on  the  day  of  sailing,  with  the  amount  of  the 
freight  written  on  them  and  duly  signed  by  the  steamship  company's 
agent. 

One  copy  of  this  signed  hiU  of  lading  is  mailed  to  the  consignee  wUh 
one  copy  of  the  consular  invoice. 

COLOMBIAN  CONSULAR  REQUIREMENTS. 

Make  five  copies  of  the  consular  invoice;  duplicator  or  mimeograph 
copies  are  allowed. 

Take  four  copies  to  the  Colombian  consulate  on  the  day  before  the 
date  of  sailing  and  one  to  the  steamship  company.  The  consul 
returns  one  copy  duly  signed  and  certified,  and  with  one  20-cent  stamp 
attached  (for  each  page  used),  on  payment  of  consular  fees. 

The  stamped  copy  returned  by  the  consulate  must  he  mmled  to  the 
consignee,  as  that  is  the  copy  which  he  must  present  at  the  customhouse 
at  the  port  of  entry. 

Following  is  the  schedule  of  Colombian  consular  fees : 

First  class:  Free. — School  books  and  school  supplies;  plants;  live  animals;  agricul- 
tural seeds;  serums  and  medical  vaccine;  textbooks;  gold  coin  and  gold  bars  not 
less  than  0.9000  fine. 

Second  class:  One  per  cent. — ^Machinery;  tools  for  industrial  purposes;  agricultural 
implements;  fertilizers;  sulphuric  acid;  sulphur;  mining  suppUes;  buildings  of  iron 
and  wood;  rough  timber;  roofing  materials;  barbed  wire;  staples;  piping  of  iron,  steel, 
etc.;  manila,  sisal,  and  hemp  rope;  metal  cables;  wire  cloth;  wire  for  electrical 
conductors;  metals  in  sheets,  bars,  and  pigs;  pumps  of  all  kinds;  salts  of  soda  for 
the  treatment  of  metals. 

Th'id  class:  Three  per  cent. — All  other  merchandise. 

>  Revised,  August,  1919,  from  statement  by  the  Consul  General  of  Colombia,  New  York,  SeptembCT. 
1912.  '  >      f  t 

375 


376    c'oi^mbia:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

The  above  rates  are  charged  on  the  value  of  the  invoice,  as  declared 
by  the  shipper.  The  value  declared  must  be  accurate  and  figured 
as  f.  o.  b.  steamer.  Under  the  law  of  Colombia  the  customhouse  has 
the  right  to  take  for  the  use  of  the  Government  any  shipment  of 
merchandise  at  the  value  declared  hy  the  shipper.  This  right  nas  often 
been  exercised  in  cases  of  undervalued  goods. 

All  consular  invoices  must  be  written  in  the  Spanish  language  and 
contain,  neatly  stated:  Name  of  shipper,  name  of  vessel,  names  of 
consignee  and  owner  of  goods,  mark  and  number  of  each  package, 
number  and  kiiid  of  packages,  contents  of  each,  net  and  gross  weight, 
partial  values,  and  total  value  of  shipment — also,  in  a  separate  Tine, 
the  sum  total  of  the  freight,  insurance,  and  commission  {if  any)  to 
the  port  of  entry. 

It  is  important  to  remember  that,  in  case  the  freight  is  not  known 
exactly  before  the  presentation  of  the  consular  invoice,  it  must  be 
estimated  (from  the  steamship  company's  freight  rates)  as  closely 
as  possible. 

No  consular  invoice  is  signed  by  the  consul  before  these  require- 
ments are  complied  with  and  the  consular  declaration  made. 

All  copies  of  the  consular  invoice  must  be  signed  by  the  shipper  or 
his  representative,  dated,  and  above  the  signature  must  be  written 
the  following  declaration,  in  Spanish: 

Bajo  juramento  declaramos  que  los  precios  anotados  en  este  documento  eon  loe 
mismos  qiie  cargamos  al  intersado  en  la  factura  comercial  y  que  los  pesos  de  los 
bultos  estan  dados  correctamente. 

Which,  translated,  means: 

Under  oath  we  solemnly  declare  that  the  prices  stated  in  this  document  are  the 
same  as  charged  to  the  customer  on  the  commercial  invoice,  and  that  the  weights  of 
the  packages  are  given  correctly. 

A  false  entry  may  lead  to  the  seizure  of  the  goods  at  the  custom- 
house, as  may  also  a  fraudulent  declaration  of  weights. 

Duties  in  Colombia  are  charged  on  the  gross  weight — that  is, 
weight  of  the  goods,  container,  wrappings,  etc.  Shippers  to  points 
in  the  interior  of  Colombia  must  consign  to  an  agent  at  the  port  of 
entry. 

No  "To  order"  shipments  are  permitted  in  Colombia. 

MISTAKES  TO  BE  AVOIDED. 

Don't  foi^et  to  have  each  package  numbered  and  marked  dis- 
tinctly. 

Don't  wait  imtil  the  last  moment  to  make  out  your  shipping 
papers. 

Don't  undervalue. 

Don't  make  false  declarations. 

Don't  enter  false  or  mistaken  weights. 

Don't  fail  to  follow  instructions  of  your  chent  regarding  declara- 
tion of  goods — that  is,  customs  classification,  etc. 

Don't  fail  to  use  Colombian  customs  tariff  serial  numbers  for 
classification. 

Don't  forget  that  duties  are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  andi  hat 
too  heavy  packing  means  a  loss  for  your  customer. 


APPENDIXES.  377 

Don't  fail  to  have  your  packing  list  and  invoices  a^ee  with  serial 
and  lot  numbering  of  packages,  and  the  packing  list  agree  ^with 
contents  of  packages. 

Don't  fail  to  remember  that  the  Colombian  customs  tariff  is  rather 
ambiguous  in  many  respects  with  regard  to  classification  of  goods 
and  that  your  client  knows  this  tariff,  is  the  best  judge  of  such 
classification,  and  is  in  a  better  position  to  combat  fines  and  claims 
than  you  are. 

Don't  fail  to  insure  goods  through  to  destination,  not  merely  to 
port  of  entry.     (The  greater  proportion  of  loss  occurs  in  the  interior.) 

Don't  forget  that  parcel-post  shipments  are  assessed  on  the  highest 
value  of  goods  contained  and  that  each  class  and  quality  of  merchan- 
dise must  be  packed  in  separate  packages. 

Don't  fail  to  insure  parcel-post  shipments  thi-ough  to  destination, 
not  merely  to  port  of  entry. 

Don't  fail  to  use  waterproofing  for  shipments  into  the  interior 
where  mule  transport  is  used. 

Don't  fail  to  remember  that  your  customer  will  appreciate  your 
attention  to  these  details,  which  prevent  trouble,  expense,  and  delay 
on  his  part,  and  that  export  business  with  Latin  America  depends 
on  careful  attention  to  detail  and  a  wide  knowledge  of  the  little 
things. 


Appendix    B.— PROPER    PACKING    FOR    SHIPMENTS    TO 

COLOMBIA. 

Packing  by  American  exporters  is  the  chief  source  of  complaint  on 
the  part  of  the  Colombian  merchant  against  the  United  States,  and 
is  the  cause  of  90  per  cent  of  the  commercial  disputes,  difficulties  in 
collecting  accounts,  etc. 

After  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  subject,  which  has  included  the 
inspection  of  the  entire  cargoes  of  American,  English,  French,  and 
Spanish  steamers  bringing  cargoes  of  merchandise  to  Puerto  Colombia 
and  Cartagena,  the  writer  is  convinced  that  American  firms  shipping 
goods  to  Colombia  will  have  to  pay  more  attention  to  packmg  it 
meir  trade  with  that  country  is  to  continue  in  satisfactory  volume. 

RELATION  OF  PACKING  TO  CUSTOMS  DUTIES. 

Customs  duties  are  assessed  on  the  gross  weight  of  the  package 
imported — hence  the  necessity  for  packing  goods  in  contamers  as 
light  as  possible.  There  have  been  many  cases  in  which  goods,  such 
as  high-grade  silk  ribbons  and  similar  articles,  have  been  ordered 

Eacked  in  waterproofed  bales  but  have  been  deliberately  shipped  in 
eavy  wooden  boxes  on  which  the  importer  has  been  forced  to  pay  a 
duty  of  5  Colombian  dollars  per  kilo  (2.2  pounds),  the  actual  weight 
of  the  goods  being  only  a  fraction  of  that  of  the  heavy^  packing  cases. 
No  merchant  can  pay  5  dollars  per  kilo  in  duty  on  pine  lumber  and 
make  any  money.  As  proof  of  tnis,  it  may  be  stated  that,  when  this 
report  was  written,  there  were  several  stocks  of  such  goods  lying  in 
storage  at  Cartagena  which  could  not  be  sold  at  the  prevaihng  com- 
petitive prices  for  similar  articles  on  the  market,  and  they  thus 
represented  a  dead  loss  to  the  merchant  importing  them. 

There  are  cases  in  which  a  box,  much  too  large  for  the  goods  con- 
tained, has  been  filled  with  waste  cloth  or  paper,  on  all  of  which  the 
merchant  in  Colombia  pays  the  same  duty  as  on  the  goods  them- 
selves. Many  times  the  importer  refuses  to  accept  the  shipment, 
which  is  then  held  by  the  customhouse  for  payment  of  duty,  and, 
finally,  is  often  sold  at  auction  for  the  account  of  the  Government. 
If  the  buyer  does  not  take  the  goods,  the  exporter  may  order  them 
returned,  but  is  forced  to  pay  the  duty  in  any  case  before  they  can  be 
moved. 

EFFECT  OF  INCORRECT  PACKING  METHODS. 

The  general  result  is  that  the  Colombian  merchant  frequently 
becomes  keenly  dissatisfied  with  American  packing  methoas  and 
looks  for  a  renewal  of  his  old  European  relations,  whue  the  American 
exporter  on  the  other  hand  says  that  the  Colombian  trade  is  not 
worth  while  and  is  only  prolific  of  trouble. 

It  is  believed  that  a  canvass  of  such  cases  in  Colombia  would  show 
disputed  values  running  into  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  at  this 
time.  Hundreds  of  cases  of  this  kind  have  been  brought  to  the 
writer's  attention.     The  effect  of  such  a  condition  on  American  trade 

378 


APPENDIXES.  379 

with  Colombia  and  other  Latin  American  countries  must  not  be 
underestimated.     An  immediate  remedy  is  imperative. 

If  he  can,  the  Colombian  merchant  much  prefers  to  do  business 
with  New  York,  because  shipments  are  more  rapid,  with  good 
deliveries.  He  also  likes  American  goods  and  .American  business 
methods,  but  his  trade  is  likely  to  revert  to  Europe  if  our  present 
packing  methods  are  continued. 

Volumes  might  be  written  on  this  subject.  It  would  be  well  if  the 
American  exporter  could  come  to  Colombia  and  inspect  the  incoming 
American  cargoes;  could  go  over  the  numberless  letters  claiming 
(and  rightly  so)  reductions  on  account  of  excessive  duties  resulting 
from  the  ignoring  of  packing  instructions;  and  could  listen  to  the 
complaints  on  every  hand  of  breakage,  loss  by  theft  on  account  of 
broken  packages,  confusion  of  nmnbering,  excessive  expense  charges, 
etc. 

Proper  packing  is  one  of  the  most  effective  sales  factors.  A 
package  of  good  appearance  inspires  confidence  in  the  goods  con- 
tained and  snows  care  and  appreciation  on  the  part  of  the  exporter, 
as  well  as  an  understanding  of  local  conditions  and  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  ways  and  means. 

NECESSITY  OF  IMPLICITLY  FOLLOWING  INSTRUCTIONS. 

In  the  word  "instructions"  is  embodied  the  keynote  of  all  packing 
of  goods  for  Colombia.  It  is  really  very  simple.  FoUow  the  buyer's 
instructions  regarding  'packing.  Yet  this  is  the  very  thing  that  is 
seldom  done  by  the  American  exporter.  He  does  not  take  into  con- 
sideration that  there  is  a  very  good  reason  for  these  instructions,  that 
they  are  necessary,  and  that  the  buyer  knows  his  business  and  knows 
what  he  wants  and  why. 

When  packing  instructions  are  not  followed  the  American  exporter 
is  courting  trouble  and  the  possible  loss  of  a  good  customer.  He 
causes  the  goods  to  cost  more  than  his  European  competitor's,  and 
he  makes  the  Colombian  buyer  angry  on  account  of  his  lack  of  atten- 
tion to  instructions,  involving  great  loss  of  time,  extra  expense,  etc. 

The  Colombian  merchants  know  how  goods  ordered  by  them 
should  be  packed  and  will  gladly  furnish  detailed  specifications  if 
asked  for  tnem,  recommending  materials  to  be  used,  sizes  and  weights 
of  packages,  etc. 

In  many  cases  Colombian  purchasers  have  made  visits  in  person  to 
New  York  houses,  placing  orders  for  large  stocks  of  goods,  and  spend- 
ing some  time  giving  personal  instructions  as  to  packing,  etc.  The 
American  house  has  accepted  and  shipped  the  order,  but  has  entirely 
disregarded  the  packing  instructions.  The  result  is  that  the  Colom- 
bian merchant,  upon  seeing  the  shipment,  says  that  he  can  not  con- 
tinue to  do  business  with  that  particular  house  because  they  will  not 
f>ay  attention  to  his  own  verbal  instructions,  after  promismg  faith- 
ully  to  do  so  and  receiving  the  order  on  that  basis. 

It  is  universally  held,  and  rightly  so,  that  no  exporter  has  a  right  to 
accept  an  order  embodying  special  packing  instructions  and  then 
disregard  them  entirely.  If  conditions  are  such  that  the  particular 
goods  can  not  be  packed  according  to  instructions,  the  least  that  can 
be  done  is  to  advise  the  buyer  of  the  fact  and  ask  him  for  further 
instructions,  explaining  the  packing  method  to  be  followed. 


380     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 
EXPORT  HOUSES  AND  FACTORIES. 

Export  houses  that  have  been  doing  business  with  Latin  America 
for  some  time  undoubtedly  know  how  goods  destined  for  these  coun- 
tries should  be  packed  and  have  on  hand  considerable  information 
regarding  special  items  for  certain  districts  or  countries.  There  seem 
to  be  two  principal  causes  for  the  failure  of  these  experienced  export 
houses  to  pack  goods  properly  for  Latin  American  trade. 

One  of  these  is  faulty  organization  in  the  office  of  the  export 
house.  The  most  usual  way  is  for  the  business  to  be  divided  mto 
departments  by  commodities,  such  as  chemical  buying  department, 
textile  department,  etc.  The  heads  of  these  various  departments  are, 
of  course,  specialists  in  their  particular  line,  but  they  know  very  little 
about  the  country  to  which  the  goods  are  going  and  less  about  prac- 
tical shipping  and  packing  methods — this  detail  being  left  to  the 
shipping  department,  often  composed  of  new  men  without  foreign- 
trade  experience  and  unfamiliar  with  conditions  in  Latin  America. 
The  result  is  seen  in  improved  buying  methods  and  a  saving  in  costs, 
but  a  packing  situation  that  is  sometimes  disastrous  to  trade.  It  is 
believed  by  the  writer  that  departments  should  be  organized  on  a 
different  plan.  Heads  of  departments  should  be  in  charge  of  a  cer- 
tain country,  or  group  of  countries  where  conditions  are  similar,  and 
should  be  intimately  informed  concerning  requirements  in  those 
countries.  Every  indiAridual  order,  whatever  variety  of  merchan- 
dise is  involved,  should  be  followed  throughout  by  such  heads  of  de- 
partments, who  should  supervise  the  packing,  billing,  shipping,  etc. 
The  head  of  the  department  should  be  made  responsible  for  each  order 
passing  through  his  hands.  This  system  makes  for  a  comprehensive 
detailed  knowledge  of  the  country  to  which  the  goods  are  destined, 
and  it  operates  to  prevent  mistakes. 

The  other  cause  is  the  lack  of  cooperation  between  the  manufac- 
turers and  the  export  houses  in  the  matter  of  packing;  for  a  discus- 
sion of  this  subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  page  346, 

ADVANTAGES  OF  PROPER  PACKING. 

Proper  packing  is  often  less  expensive  than  the  wrong  kind.  It 
costs  less  to  pacK  a  bale  of  cotton  cloth  in  one  wrapping  of  heavy 

Eaper,  one  oi  waterproof  "tarpaulin,"  and  one  sewed  covering  of 
eavy  jute,  than  it  does  to  place  it  in  a  heavy  pine  box.  In  the 
former  case  the  weight  for  the  packing  is  less  than  1  kilo  per  bale, 
resulting  in  a  saving  of  packing  costs,  freight  charges,  duties,  and 
extra  handling. 

That  the  American  manufacturer  can  pack  goods  properly  for  ex- 

Eort  is  witnessed  by  the  articles  shippea  by  several  large  specialty 
ouses,  such  as  pianos,  phonographs,  sewing  machines,  weighing 
scales,  inks,  drugs  and  patent  medicines,  etc.  These  concerns  have 
made  a  study  of  their  fine  and  of  the  countries  to  which  they  ship 
their  product  and  have  evolved  a  packing  case,  or  bale,  that  is  strong, 
light,  and  well  adapted  to  the  particular  article  contained.  There 
are  no  complaints  of  breakage  or  loss  from  these  items,  and  such 
goods  and  firms  are  held  up  by  the  Colombian  merchants  as  shining 
examples  of  what  can  be  accomplished  by  attention  to  detail  and 
knowledge  of  conditions.     The  trouble  lies  with  the  general  run  of 


APPENDIXES.  381 

export  merchandise  and  with  the  average  factory  and  average  export 
house,  making  up  the  largest  bulk  of  the  total  exports  from  the 
United  States. 

PACKING  SPECIFICATIONS  FOR  COLOMBIA. 

In   the  following  pages   are  given  packing  specifications  for  all 
important  items  imported  into  Colombia: 

CANNED    GOODS,    BOTTLED    GOODS,    ETC. 

For  canned  and  bottled  gooda,  the  usual  boxes  or  cases  are  good  if  they  are  properly 
reinforced  at  corners  and  edged  with  iron  strapping  at  least  *  inch  in  width.  This 
prevents  breakage  of  cases  (in  the  event  of  a  fall),  splitting  at  the  ends,  etc.  Good 
end  pieces  should  be  used  to  insure  secure  nailing. 

In  the  case  of  bottles,  divisions  should  be  provided  to  prevent  movement  in  cases 
and  consequent  breakage.     Sawdust,  etc.,  adds  to  weight. 

A  very  good  scheme  for  conveying  the  idea  "Handle  with  care,"  "Glass,"  etc.,  is  to 
provide  a  good  stencil  showing  a  wine  glass.  An  ignorant  stevedore  who  can  not 
read  the  signs  can  thus  see  at  a  glance  that  the  case  contains  glass  and  should  be 
handled  with  care.  This  de\'ice  is  used  to  some  extent,  and  the  men  know  these 
picture  signs,  which  result  in  increased  care  in  handling. 

Wines,  etc.,  are  shipped  from  Italy,  Spain,  and  France  for  export  to  South  America 
in  the  wicker  baskets  described  below,  under  "Chinaware."  These  baskets  are 
charged  for  and  are  liked  by  merchants. 


Cement  is  packed  in  barrels  of  the  usual  size.  Barrels  should  have  iron  "rolled" 
hoops  at  both  ends.  There  should  be  heavy  ends,  or  heads,  reinforced  with  cross- 
piece  of  wood  nailed  through  rim  and  fitting  into  bevel  of  rim. 

There  are  manj^  complaints  of  breakage  and  loss  due  to  careless  handling  by  steam- 
ship companies,  in  loading  and  discharging.  Some  shipments  of  cement  have  re- 
cently been  received  in  Colombia  with  a  total  loss  of  40  per  cent  of  contents.  The 
method  of  packing  above  set  forth  has  given  the  best  results  in  the  past  and  was  con- 
sidered superior  to  the  European  method — the  barrels  being  better  on  account  of 
the  roUed-iron  hoops  and  cross-braced  head. 

CHINAWARE,    TABLEWARE,    POTTERY,    ETC. 

These  articles  may  be  packed  in  specially  constructed  crates,  oblong  in  shape  and 
of  light  wood,  reinforced  with  iron  strapping  at  corners  and  edges.  Crates  should  be 
strong  enough  to  prevent  crushing  in  cargo  slings  when  they  are  being  loaded  and  un- 
loaded from  steamer. 

They  may  also  be  packed  in  "huacales,"  or  frame  crates  made  of  natural  wood, 
round  and  cut-in  woods — bracing  put  through  holes  bored  in  main  sections;  facing  of 
bark,  etc.;  dishes  packed  in  wheat  straw,  each  crate  containing  one  size  of  plate,  cup, 
or  dish.  This  prevents  loss  of  space  and  avoids  undue  movement,  preventing  break- 
age. This  form  of  packing  for  dishes  is  to  be  recommended,  since  these  frame  crates 
can  be  easily  and  cheaply  made  by  unskilled  labor  in  outlying  country  districts.  Their 
main  quality  is  their  elasticity,  a  rough  jolt  causing  them  to  "give  "  just  enough  to 
avoid  a  jar  to  the  contents. 

Another  form  of  packing  used  for  high-grade  china  is  the  wicker  or  willow  basket. 
This  is  constructed  of  rough  willow,  J  inch  in  thickness,  and  is  proWded  with  a 
hinged  cover.  The  basket  is  aLso  very  elastic  and  absorbs  the  jar  of  a  fall.  These 
baskets  are  charged  for  on  invoice,  are  sold  in  Colombia  by  merchants  for  clothes 
baskets,  burro  panniers,  bottle  containers,  etc.,  and  form  a  very  useful  article  of  com- 
merce. 

Expert  care  should,  of  course,  be  the  rule  in  the  actual  packing  of  contents.  This 
is  a  matter  of  experience  and  knowledge. 

All  American  china  and  glass  ware  is  now  shipped  into  Colombia  in  barrels,  and 
merchants  report  a  breakage  of  at  least  40  per  cent.  Barrels  are  too  large  to  permit  the 
selection  of  one  size  of  dish  or  article;  they  do  not  "fill  "  well,  and  the  contents  work  to 
the  bottom,  causing  breakage.  Barrels  are  also  wasteful  of  ocean  freight  space  and 
are  easily  broken  in  handling. 


382     COLOMBIA;   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

CLOTHINO. 

Wlien  one  is  shipping  ready-made  clothing  that  has  laces,  silk  trimmings,  or  other 
adornment  which  takes  a  much  higher  rate  than  the  garment  itself,  such  trimmings 
should,  according  to  instructions  from  buyer,  be  removed  and  packed  separately,  but 
should  be  properly  numbered,  so  that  they  can  be  replaced  on  the  right  garment  for 
display  and  ssJe. 

FURNITURE. 

Furniture  should  be  packed  in  crates  (open)  and  should  be  cross  braced  to  prevent 
collapsingin  cargo  slings. 

Wrapping  should  be  of  excelsior,  paper  packs  containing  excelsior,  or  other  similar 
material.  Varnish  or  finish  should  be  well  dried  and  backed  before  wrapping  to  pre- 
vent sticking. 

Skids  should  be  bolted  under  heavy  pieces  to  facilitate  rolling. 

Bracing  should  be  provided  inside  or  cases  or  crates  containing  mirrors,  etc.,  to  pre- 
vent movement;  and  protection  to  glass  should  be  provided  by  means  of  a  light  wooden 
cover  over  it. 

Mirrors  from  France  are  preferred  on  account  of  the  good  packing.  This  style  of 
mirror  has  a  heavy  and  ornate  frame  of  gold,  enamel,  and  plaster  work,  and  needs  ex- 
treme care  in  packing.  The  edges  should  not  touch  the  case  or  crate  in  any  place, 
and  the  article  should  be  laid  in  heavy  elastic  material  such  as  excelsior. 

Most  furnittire  from  the  United  States  is  well  packed,  and  breakage  is  due  to  careless 
handling  by  transportation  companies.  This  condition  has  become  so  bad  that  Colom- 
bians will  not  buy  expensive  furniture  in  the  United  States  unless  dealers  guarantee 
safe  arrival  at  destination,  with  compensation  for  loss  by  breakage  or  other  damage. 
Dealers  are  loath  to  give  any  such  guarantee  because  it  is  almost  impossible  for  them 
to  collect  from  transportation  companies  in  case  of  damage.  In  this  connection  it  is 
to  be  recommended   that  someone — that  is,  the  dealer  or  the  transportation  com- 

Eanies — be  made  responsible  for  damage,  and,  where  more  than  one  company  has 
andled  goods  to  which  damage  occurs,  all  should  be  made  to  pay  a  pro-rata  share  of 
the  compensation.    More  care  would  then  be  taken. 

GENERAL   MERCHANDISE. 

Packing  cases  for  general  merchandise  should  be  as  light  and  as  strong  as  possible . 
Cleating  of  edges  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  these  catch  in  other  cases  and  soon 
become  broken.  As  cleats  are  held  with  nails,  a  cleat  is  only  as  strong  as  the  piece 
of  wood  holding  the  nailing,  and  it  therefore  only  adds  to  the  weight  of  the  case  with- 
out adding  to  its  strength.  Iron  strapping  is  to  be  used  in  every  case.  This  holds 
the  nailing  in  place  and  prevents  splitting  of  cases  in  case  of  a  heavy  fall  or  blow. 

'V\Tienever  waterproofing  is  specified,  and  when  merchandise  is  destined  for  transport 
in  the  interior,  wooden  packing  cases  containing  valuable  goods  should  be  protected 
against  rain.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  covering  of  tarpaulin  outside  of  the  box  or 
case,  which  in  turn  is  covered  with  an  outside  protection  of  heavy  jute,  sewed  to  size 
and  fit. 

Where  tin  cases  are  used,  these  should  be  braced  with  wooden  supports  in  the  inside 
to  prevent  mashing.  An  inside  added  protection  of  tarpaulin  should  be  provided,  as 
tin  is  often  punched  full  of  holes. 

GLASS. 

Following  is  a  description  of  the  English  and  German  methods  of  packing  window 
panes — first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  selections  (grades);  100  pieces  in  each  wooden 
box-  sizes  up  to  70  by  90  centimeters  (27.3  by  35.1  inches): 

The  glass  is  packed  in  wooden  boxes  divided  into  four  compartments  by  means 
of  sliding  partitions  fitted  into  grooves  cut  in  the  sides  of  the  boxes,  which  are  made  to 
fit  the  sizes  of  panes  shipped . 

Each  pane  of  glass  is  laid  in  thin,  cheap  paper  (between  each  pane),  with  25  panes 
to  each  compartment,  each  lot  of  25  panes  being  wrapped  in  heavy  paper  and  tied. 

Each  package  of  25  panes  is  again  wrapped  in  straw,  but  this  straw  is  tied  onto  the 
package  with  cord  and  nicely  fitted  into  the  compartment  in  the  packing  case. 

Around  the  middle  of  each  packing  case,  on  all  six  sides,  there  is  nailed  a  heavy 
cleat.  This  cleat  serves  a  double  purpose.  It  imparts  great  strength  to  the  packing 
case  and  at  the  same  time  prevents  the  piling  of  many  cases  one  on  another;  so  there 
is  no  breaking,  by  pressure,  of  the  cases  underneath  the  pile. 

Square  nails  are  used,  as  these  hold  much  better  in  the  wood  than  the  ordinary 
round  wire  nail.     Iron  strapping  is  used  on  the  edges  of  the  packiiig  cases. 


4  APPENDIXES.  383 

Goods  packed  in  this  way  are  received  in  perfect  condition,  even  after  eight  trans- 
fers to  reach  Bogota . 

American  glass  received  in  Bogota  during  the  war  usually  arrived  with  as  much  as  60 
per  cent  broken.  Little  more  glass  will  be  ordered  from  the  United  Stated  unless  ex- 
porters assure  buyers  that  glass  will  be  packed  properly  and  breakage  prevented. 

As  an  exception  and  an  example  of  adequate  packing,  it  may  be  noted  that  shipments 
of  window  glass  from  an  American  company  to  importers  in  Medellin  have  been  re- 
ceived in  good  condition  with  less  than  2  per  cent  or  breakage  (a  record  for  Colombia), 
after  being  handled  no  less  than  six  times  en  route  to  Medellin  and  receiving  very 
rough  usage  throughout,  as  the  appearance  of  the  boxes  testified.  These  shipments 
were  p)acked  according  to  the  packing  specifications  for  window  glass  outlined  above, 
except  that,  instead  of  sections  running  transversely  (in  a  wider  box),  the  sections  were 
put  in  longitudinally.  Where  the  panes  shipped  are  small — say  12-inch — ^it  is  better 
to  put  in  sections  transversely.  The  purchasers  were  glad  to  see  the  use  of  very  light 
wood  for  the  main  body  of  the  packing  cases  containing  this  glass,  and  also  the  careful 
application  of  heavy  edge  bracing,  reinforced  with  strap  iron. 

HATS  (men's   felt). 

Italian  felt  hats  are  packed  for  export  to  Colombia  in  long  bales,  nicely  wrapped  in 
heavy,  flexible  paper  next  to  the  hats;  then  there  is  a  wrapping  of  light  amd  strong 
tarpaulin  (for  waterproofing)  sewed  to  fit  exactly,  and  then  a  heavy  outer  covering  of 
bagging,  or  heavy  jute,  also  sewed  to  fit  exactly. 

Txie  hats  themselves  are  placed  one  over  the  other,  those  of  the  same  size  and  style 
being  arranged  together  in  order  that  each  hat  may  fit  well  into  the  next  one,  thus 
leaving  no  space  for  rubbing  or  movement.  The  hat  at  the  lower  end — that  is,  the 
first  hat  used^ — ^is  filled  with  soft  paper  so  that  the  shape  may  be  retained.  Between 
each  hat  there  is  placed  a  piece  of  tissue  paper  to  protect  it  from  rubbing. 

This  makes  a  solid  bale  or  bundle,  waterproof  and  light  in  weight  so  far  as  packing 
material  is  concerned;  the  contents  can  not  move  about,  and  they  keep  their  shape. 
Bales  packed  in  this  manner  were  inspected  by  the  writer  after  their  arrival  in  Medellin 
and  were  all  found  to  be  in  first-cla^  condition,  clean  and  not  damaged  in  any  way. 
All  the  merchant  had  to  do  was  to  unpack  the  goods  and  crease  the  felt  hats,  to  place 
them  on  display  for  sale. 

These  hats  are  of  cheap  and  mediima  grades  and  retail  in  Medellin  for  5  Colombian 
dollars,  costing  at  wholesale  about  2  dollars  each. 

The  writer  saw  American  hats  of  cheap  and  medium  grades  that  had  been  packed  in 
somewhat  the  same  manner,  but,  on  account  of  inexpert  packing  and  lack  of  attention 
to  detail,  the  hats  were  received  in  a  very  bad  condition' — wrinkled,  soiled,  and  in 
need  of  reblocking  before  they  could  be  placed  on  sale. 

ELA.RDWARE. 

This  line  is  too  comprehensive  and  varied  for  one  to  specify  each  article  or  class 
of  articles. 

Valuable  fittings— such  as  brass  valves,  for  example — should  be  well  crated,  packed 
in  straw,  and  protected  against  pilfering  by  a  wire  mesh  inside  of  crate.  In  no  case 
should  contents  be  left  loose,  as  this  causes  movement,  damage  to  goods,  and  breaking 
open  of  cases  or  crates. 

Bolts  should  be  packed  in  good  boxes,  well  strapped,  with  cross-braced  heads. 

Nails  should  be  shipped  in  kegs  made  with  iron  turned  hoops  and  with  cross-braced 
heads.  At  present  a%  kegs  are  made  with  heads  much  too  light  to  withstand  the 
handling  received. 

On  all  cases  containing  hea\y  iron  or  steel  goods,  iron  strapping  at  edges  should  be 
extra  heavy,  1  inch  in  width  and  nailed  with  "box"'  or  "clinch"  nails.  AU  other 
general  specifications  apply. 

MACHINERY. 

Cast  iron  is  brittle  and  will  not  stand  a  bad  jar  or  fall.  However  well  packed,  a 
blow  will  break  it.  Packing  is  necessarily  very  heavy  to  withstand  the  great  weights. 
Nevertheless,  broken  machinery  is  the  chief  cause  of  complaint  in  Colombia  on  the 
part  of  machinery  importers.  Investigation  shows  that  machinery  is  universally 
well  packed  by  American  exporters,  but  that  the  trouble  lies  with  the  steamship 
companies,  or,  rather,  the  stevedoring  companies  that  contract  for  the  work  of  loading 
ships. 


384     (COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL,  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

These  latter  companies  are  inexcusably  careless  in  handling  machinery,  often  very 
valuable.  The  remedy  seems  to  be  in  supervision  of  such  shipments  by  the  steam- 
ship company,  which  should  be  made  responsible  for  damage. 

Extra  cnarges  are  made  for  "heavy  lifts,"  etc.,  so  there  can  be  no  good  reason  for 
such  a  condition  as  exists  to-day  in  the  handling  of  machinery  by  ocean  service. 
Machinery  from  England  arrives  in  excellent  condition  and  is  no  better  packed  than 
American  goods  of  a  like  nature. 

The  system  now  in  vogue  of  contracting  the  loading  of  all  ships  of  one  company  to 
some  stevedoring  company  at  so  much  per  ton  is  responsible  for  this  condition,  the 
result  being  the  effort  to  get  the  ship  loaded  with  as  few  men  and  in  as  short  a  time  as 
possible,  involving  breakage  and  careless  handling  of  valuable  machines  which  can 
only  be  replaced  or  repaired  at  great  expense  and  with  much  loss  of  time. 

Two  recommendations  can  be  made,  applying  to  machinery  shipments.  One  of 
these  is  the  use  of  heavy  skids  under  cases  containing  heavy  machinery  (say  500 
pounds  and  up),  being  two  in  number,  placed  on  edge,  beveled  at  ends,  to  facilitate 
sliding  on  rollers;  and  the  skids  should  be  bolted,  not  spiked  to  the  case.  Bolts 
should  be  countersunk  to  avoid  interfering  with  dragging  or  rolling  operations.  These 
skids  also  lend  greater  longitudinal  strength  to  the  packing  case  and  prevent  breakage 
of  cast  iron  in  long  pieces  by  a  pull  in  the  middle — by  a  winch,  for  instance. 

Another  recommendation  is  that  of  crating  such  machinery  as  gas  engines  (sta- 
tionary), oil  engines,  etc.,  where  flywheels  are  used,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  fly- 
wheels, disconnected  from  the  piston  rod  at  the  crank,  can  revolve  and,  being  exposed 
to  revolve  freely,  act  as  rollers  for  the  machine,  which  can  be  easily  lifted  at  one  end 
and  rolled  to  wherever  it  is  wanted. 

Sawdust  packing  is  not  desirable,  as  the  parts,  usually  small  and  delicate,  soon 
work  together  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  and  become  damaged  or  broken.  The  best 
method  is  to  wrap  carefully  in  an  oiled  paper,  tied  and  packed  in  straw  or  excelsior, 
with  several  partitions  made  in  the  box  for  important  parts. 

Sectional  bracing  should  always  be  used  in  pacMng  cast-iron  parts  or  delicate 
machine  parts.  Partitions— not  merely  nailed  to  side  of  case,  but  set  to  cleats — 
should  separate  all  pieces  contained  in  the  same  case,  and  cross  braces  and  blocking, 
securely  nailed,  should  be  used  to  prevent  movement  and  jar.  No  one  piece  should 
touch  the  other.  Special  charges  are  made  for  export  packing,  usually  running  as  high 
as  10  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  machinery. 

Delicate  machine  parts  should  be  packed  in  tin-lined  cases.  These  tinned  cases 
are  made  to  fit  and  are  soldered  inside  of  the  packing  case. 

PAPER   AND   PAPER   PRODUCTS. 

With  the  exception  of  news-print  paper,  which  comes  in  heavy  and  very  hard 
rolls,  covered  with  a  heavy  building  paper,  and  is  well  protected  by  the  very  hardness 
of  the  roll  itself,  there  is  much  complaint  with  regard  to  the  packing  of  paper  and 
paper  products. 

Packing  of  writing  paper,  sheets,  wrapping  paper,  tissue  paper,  etc.,  should  be  in 
pressed  "bales" — that  is,  the  bale  of  paper  neld  in  place  by  the  necessary  number 
of  wooden  frame  pieces  crossing  the  top,  and  fattened  with  iron  straps  at  the  edge.^. 
The  contents  should  be  first  protected  by  a  layer  of  heavy  cardboard  or  other  similar 
material.  In  a  good  pressed  bale  the  paper  can  not  move,  while  the  contents  can 
be  readily  seen  and  inspected  by  customs  officers  and  are  always  received  in  good 
condition.  This  system  is  very  good  and  can  be  used  for  an  endless  variety  of  similar 
goods. 

If  sizes  of  sheets  of  paper  do  not  allow  crating  to  be  used  and  a  roll  is  made,  the 
roll  should  be  protected  by  a  cylindrical  crate,  not  solid  cohering,  but  open  work, 
reinforced  by  strapping  at  edges,  etc.  There  should  be  solid  heads  for  proper  nailing. 
Boxes  or  cases  are  not  good;  the  paper  mov&s  too  much  and  is  received  in  a  damaged 
condition.  A  blow,  breaking  the  wood  of  the  box  inward,  will  do  a  great  deal  of 
damage  to  many  sheets  of  paper.  The  movement  inside  also  spoils  the  paper.  It  is 
impossible  to  pack  a  box  tightly  with  paper  of  varying  sizes  and  keep  it  without 
movement. 

PLUMBING  AND  TOILET  ARTICLES. 

Small  nickel-plated  fittings  should  be  packed  in  crates  in  straw.  Nickel-plated 
piping  should  be  wrapped  with  burlap,  building  paper,  or  some  such  article.  Toilets 
should  be  crated  witn  light  but  strong  crates;  this  is  aone  at  present,  but  crates  are 
not  cross-braced  as  they  should  be  to  prevent  collapsing  by  side  pressure  in  cai^o 
slings  during  loading.  Where  articles  are  small  and  there  is  danger  of  pilferage,  wire 
mesh  should  be  used  inside  of  crates.  All  other  general  specifications  apply.  See 
"Marking"  (p.  387). 


APPENDIXES  385 

SHOES,    SLIPPERS,    ETC. 

Shoes,  slippers,  etc.,  should  be  packed  in  cheap  fiber  trunks,  charged  for  on  invoice. 
Pasteboard  boxes  should  be  removed  and  each  pair  of  shoes  carefully  wrapped  in 
tissue  paper  with  an  outer  wrapping  of  heavier  paper.  Patent-leather  shoes  should 
be  wrapped  in  special  oiled  or  waxed  paper  to  prevent  sticking  to. leather  in  hot 
■climate.  In  no  case  should  tissue  paper  be  put  next  to  patent  leather.  The  trunks 
should  be  filled  to  the  limit  of  their  capacity  to  prevent  movement  of  contents  and 
consequent  "'rubbing."  The  style  and  type  of  trunk  should  be  according  to  the 
buyer's  selections. 

TEXTILES. 

Cotton  goods. — Cotton  goods  should  be  packed  in  pressed  bales  made  up  on  special 
hydraulic  prass.  The  size  varies  according  to  the  width  and  the  number  of  pieces. 
For  mule  transport  the  weight  should  not  exceed  65  kilos  (143  pounds).  Heavy 
paper  should  be  used,  covered  with  tarpaulin  cut  and  sewed  to  size  of  bale;  this  is 
the  waterproof  material  employed,  and  it  also  protects  the  goods  from  damage  by 
hooks,  etc.,  in  transit.  The  outside  covering  should  be  a  heavy  jute  sewed  to  fit 
the  bale.  The  fastenings  should  consist  of  iron  straps  1  inch  wide  placed  transversely 
and  cut  to  right  size  (length)  with  patent  fastener,  there  being  two  buttons  on  one 
end  and  slots  to  fit  at  the  other,  making  it  possible  for  the  bale  to  he  easily  opened  for 
inspection  in  the  customhouse.  These  bales  are  very  hard  and  well  pressed  and  can 
be  immersed  for  some  time  in  water  without  damage  to  goods.  Markings  should  all 
be  stenciled.  The  color  used  for  serial  numbering  should  be  red,  which  is  readily 
distinguishable  by  customs  officials  and  merchants  receiving  goods.  It  may  be  noted 
that  a  bale  of  this  kind  containing  600  kilos  of  goods  does  not  have  more  than  600 
grams  of  tare. 

Silks,  etc. — Silks  should  be  packed  in  pressed  bales  similar  to  those  described  above, 
but  not  so  tightly  pressed  (in  order  to  prevent  "breaking' '  of  silk).  For  smaller  pack- 
ages a  lighter  weight  of ' '  tarpaulin ' '  is  used,  sometimes  made  of  tarred  paper.  Where 
goods  are  very  valuable,  a  wrapping  is  made  of  some  wire  mesh  to  prevent  pih'erage 
in  transit.  Where  goods  are  destined  for  the  interior,  or  are  manufactured  articles 
of  great  value,  such  as  special  silks,  laces,  etc.,  a  tin  case,  made  to  fit.  is  used  with 
interior  wrappings  the  same  as  above  mentioned.  All  light  boards  used  for  pieces  of 
goods  should  be  removed,  as  silks  carry  a  very  high  duty  and  the  weight  should  be 
reduced  as  much  as  possible.     Other  general  specifications  also  apply. 

Shirts,  stockings,  underwear,  towels,  handkerchiefs,  table  linen,  etc. — These  articles 
should  be  packed  in  pressed  bales  similar  to  the  above.  All  other  specifications  given 
above  also  apply. 

Laces,  embroideries,  edging,  etc.,  fancy  and  plain. — These  articles  should  be  packed  in 
pressed  bales,  waterproofed  with  tarpaidm,  and  covered  with  light  jute.  Bales 
should  be  carefully  built  up  and  sides  protected  \nth  a  light  board  to  take  "bite" 
of  iron  straps  or  "cinches."  If  goods  are  very  fine  and  valuable,  a  light  wire  mesh, 
inside  of  the  jute  outside  cover,  should  be  used  to  prevent  pilferage.  All  heavy 
wooden  oi;  cardboard  centers  on  which  laces,  etc.,  are  wrapped  shoiild  be  removed 
and  only  the  lightest  cardboard  used.  European  laces  come  laid  out  in  long  lengths, 
between  paper  only,  to  mark  divisions  of  different  styles,  etc.  Heavy  cardboard 
"centers"  add  to  weight  and  hence  to  duty  collected  in  customhouses. 

Wrapping  of  muslins,  percales,  etc.,  for  display  in  Colombia. — Dress  goods  should 
come  in  bolts  measuring  20  or  25  yards,  according  to  the  instructions  of  the  purchaser. 
This  exact  length  contained  in  the  bolt  of  cloth  allows  a  fixed  number  of  dress  pieces 
to  be  cut  from  the  bolt,  without  remnants.  These  lengths  have  been  established  by 
long  usage  and  custom  in  the  country  and  are  followed  by  English  manufacturers. 
Each  bolt  of  cloth  should  carry  an  artistic  card  and  a  marking  ticket  on  which  the 
number  of  meters  (and  also  yards)  is  shown,  together  ^vith  the  lot  number  and  the 
serial  number,  both  of  which  must  agree  with  invoice  and  packing  lists.  The  writer 
inspected  a  lot  of  American  cotton  prints  on  which  the  yardage  of  each  piece  was  not 
marked,  merely  the  total  yardage  of  the  lot  being  given  (200,  in  this  case).  This 
made  it  impossible  for  the  wholesaler-importer  to  know  how  many  yards  there  were 
in  each  bolt  of  cloth  without  counting  each  piece.  This  meant  extra  time  and  ex- 
pense to  the  purchaser.  In  the  English  practice  each  piece  (bolt)  is  wrapped  in  a 
hard  glazed  paper,  either  blue  or  pink  in  color,  and  is  tied  with  a  red  tape  running 
lengthwise.  This  wrapping  paper  is  folded  under  edgewise  into  the  center  of  the 
piece  of  goods,  being  held  by  the  fold  in  the  middle.  The  cloth  can  easily  be  seen 
and  examined  from  the  ends.  In  no  case  should  ends  of  pieces  be  wrapped,  as  this 
makes  the  contents  invisible  and  the  paper  has  to  be  torn  to  ^xanoine  the  goods. 

37558°— 21 25 


386    001.0 mbia:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

After  the  wrapping  has  once  been  torn,  the  goods  soon  become  dirty,  and  torn  paper 
presents  a  poor  appearance  to  the  customer  visiting  the  importing  wholesaler,  who  is 
always  jealous  of  the  ajjpearance  of  his  sample  room.  Knglish  muslins,  ])orcale8,  shirt- 
ings, and  even  cheap  cotton  prints  seen  in  showrooms  of  ('olombian  importers  always 
look  new  and  bright  and  make  a  very  pleasing  impression,  even  when  the  mateiml 
is  inferior  in  quality. 

YARN. 

In  order  to  retain  a  hold  upon  the  Colombian  market  for  yam,  more  attention  must 
be  paid  l)y  A  raerican  shippers  to  the  method  of  packing.  The  use  of  a  light  waterproof 
wrapping  (tarpaulin)  of  good  quality  and  of  one  piece  is  requested  by  ('oloml)ian  im- 
porters of  yarn.  Too  frequently  a  heavy  grade  of  tarpaulin  is  used  by  the  American 
exporter,  thereby  causing  higher  duty  rates.  Since  the  covering  is  used  by  the  Co- 
lombian consumer  for  the  repacking  of  goods  intended  for  the  interior,  he  appreciates 
the  use  of  one  large  piece  rather  than  three  or  four  of  smaller  size.'  Moreover,  it  is 
recommended  that  the  bales  of  yarn  be  more  carefully  pressed  in  order  to  reduce  the 
cubic  volume  of  the  bale,  and  thereby  the  freight  rate  as  well,  since  ocean  freights  are 
based  upon  cubic  measurement.  European  methods  of  packing  yams  have  been 
found  very  successful.  Bundles  of  yarn  of  10  pounds  each  are  first  pressed  separately 
and  then  an  entire  bale,  consisting  of  a  numl^er  of  such  bundles,  is  pressed.  In  this 
way  a  decrease  in  volume  of  12  to  18  per  cent  has  been  secured.  It  is  readily  seen 
thatin  the  course  of  one'year,  during  which  time  25,000  to  30,000  jwunds  of  yam  are 
imported  monthly,  the  saving  in  freight  alone  would  amount  to  a  considerable  sum 
of  money. 

USE  OF  FIBER  CASES. 

A  cheap  fiber  case  is  much  used  in  Europe  for  the  shipment  of 
various  articles,  such  as  umbrellas,  shoes,  bric-a-brac,  hats,  etc. 
These  cases  cost  but  little,  have  the  advantage  of  lightness  combined 
with  great  strength,  and  can  be  used  in  Colombia  for  repacking  goods 
destined  for  the  mterior.  They  are  also  much  used  for  travel  baggage, 
storage  of  stock,  sample  cases,  etc.  No  objection  is  made  to  their 
cost  being  charged  on  the  invoice.  Care  is  taken  that  the  articles 
contained  do  not  leave  space  unoccupied.  For  example,  if  um- 
brellas are  packed,  a  case  of  the  right  length  is  selected — not  one  too 
long,  to  be  filled  with  waste  cuttings  or  paper,  on  all  of  which  duty 
would  have  to  be  paid,  as  on  gross  weignt.  Another-  advantage  of 
the  fiber  case  is  that  it  is  flexible  and  elastic,  absorbing  the  shock  of  a 
fall  or  blow  and  reducing  the  chance  of  breakage  to  a  minimum. 

Corrugated  paper  cases  are  not  to  be  recommended,  as  they  are  too 
easily  smashea  by  other  cargo  and  soon  become  torn  and  broken,  with 
the  contents  exposed  to  pilferage. 

SPECIFIC  EXAMPLES  OF  UNSATISFACTORY  AMERICAN  PACKING. 

A  case  of  American  goods  was  received  in  Colombia  in  which  flat- 
irons  were  placed  in  one  end  and  enameled  ware  in  the  other,  a  light 
partition  being  nailed  in  between  without  the  use  of  cleats  for  the 

Eartition  support.  The  result  was  that  the  heavy  flatirons,  in  moving 
ack  and  forth  in  transit,  soon  knocked  the  partition  out  and  mixed 
with  the  enameled  ware,  completely  ruining  it  for  sale  or  use.  Such 
articles  as  flatirons  should  be  simply  tied  in  a  bunch,  with  proper 
shipping  tag  wired  on,  and  put  into  a  piece  of  sacking. 

Cases  containing  shirts  nave  been  found  with  boxes  double  the 
required  size,  the  rest  of  the  space  being  filled  with  waste  paper. 
The  merchant  was  forced  to  pay  duty  on  me  entire  gross  weignt  and 
lost  heavily,  not  being  able  to  sell  the  shirts  at  a  price  to  compote 

1  Samples  of  the  tarpaulin  u.-^wl  and  preferred  by  the  Colombian  merchant.s  may  be  inspected  at  the 
Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  or  its  district  offices  upon  reference  to  me  No.  40268. 


APPENDIXES.  ,  387 

with  his  rival  in  the  line.  These  shirts  should  have  been  shipped  in  a 
bale,  pressed  and  waterproofed. 

Another  case  that  may  be  mentioned  is  that  of  a  shipment  of  small 
round  mirrors  to  Medellin,  Colombia,  from  New  York  City.  The  mir- 
rors themselves  were  packed  nicely  in  strong  pasteboard  boxes,  made  to 
size  and  designed  to  contain  a  certain  number  of  mirrors.  A  large 
case  was  selected  to  pack  them  for  shipment.  This  box  was  of  heavy 
wood,  almost  1  inch  thick,  the  weight  being  too  great.  Half-inch 
lumber,  well  cleated  and  iron  strapped,  would  nave  served  the  purpose 
just  as  well,  since  the  goods  contained  were  not  very  heavy  in  relation 
to  their  bulk.  The  result  was  extra  duty  for  the  Colombian  merchant 
to  pay.  Moreover,  the  box  selected  for  packing  was  not  of  the  right 
size.  After  the  order  had  been  packea  it  was  discovered  by  the 
packer  that  the  box  was  too  large  and  that  the  order  of  mirrors  did 
not  entirely  fill  it.  So  waste  from  the  factory,  cuttings  from  the 
leather  backs  of  mirrors,  sweepings  from  the  floor,  waste  paper,  old 
cigarette  boxes,  pieces  of  twisted  tm,  etc.,  were  collected  and  dumped 
into  the  box  on  top  of  the  goods,  and  the  cover  was  then  nailed  down. 
Naturally,  in  transit,  some  of  the  pasteboard  boxes  containing  mirrors 
were  damaged,  and  the  dirt  from  the  top  of  the  case  filtered  down 
into  the  boxes  and  soiled  the  mirrors — the  whole  case  presenting  a 
very  sorry  appearance  when  it  was  opened  at  Medellin.  The  pur- 
chaser (a  large  buyer  of  foreign  goods,  with  a  credit  rating  of  half  a 
million  dollars)  remarked  that  he  formerly  bought  all  his  mirrors  in 
France,  and  that  he  never  received  such  a  dirty  shipment  from  that 
country;  that  boxes  were  always  to  size,  li^ht  in  weight,  and  strongly 
put  up,  with  reinforcements,  etc.  He  added  that  he  did  not  like  to 
pay  duty  of  $1.60  per  kilo  on  waste  from  the  factory  floor,  or  on  a  lot 
of  extra  wood  from  the  United  States. 

The  above  examples  represent  only  three  instances  out  of  many 
that  came  to  the  writer's  attention. 

IMPORTANCE  OF  MARKING. 

Marking  is  a  very  important  matter  and  American  packers  should 
be  more  careful  ab6ut  it.  Colombian  customhouses  complain  that 
American  goods  are  not  properly  marked;  that  the  marks  on  cases, 
etc.,  do  not  always  agree  with  invoices  or  manifests,  causing  endless 
trouble  in  location  of  cases,  bales,  etc.;  that  the  serial  numbering  of 
packages  is  not  consistent;  and  that  the  whole  is  a  bewildering  series 
of  old  and  new  marks,  unintelligible  and  almost  impossible  to  decipher. 

In  this  same  connection,  merchants  complain  that  packing  lists 
are  conspicuous  by  their  absence  and  that  the  invoices  do  not  show 
the  goods  contained  in  each  case,  bale,  etc. 

The  result  is  that  an  importing  wholesaler  is  forced  to  unpack  a 
number  of  cases,  boxes,  or  barrels,  as  the  case  may  be,  to  locate  and 
check  each  list  of  similar  items.  This  also  makes  it  impossible  for 
liim  to  resell  a  closed  case  of  goods,  and  he  is  put  to  the  added  ex- 
pense of  unpacking  and  repacking. 

When  packing  lists  are  provided  by  American  shippers,  it  is 
asserted  that  these  do  not  agree  with  invoices,  necessitating  another 
check  of  goods. 

In  English  practice,  all  articles  that  are  alike  are  packed  together, 
ajid  a  separate  list  is  shown  on  the  packing  list,  with  corresponding 


388     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

lot  and  serial  numbers,  from  which  packages  and  contents  can  be 
readily  noted  and  located.  Proper  printed  forms  are  used  for  this 
purpose. 

EngHsh,  French,  and  German  packages  are  marked  with  red  for 
serial  numbering,  and  all  markings  are  made  with  good  stencils. 
There  are  no  scribbled,  undecipherable  marks,  and  old,  marked-up 
cases  are  never  used.  The  average  American  packing  case  received 
in  Colombia  is  a  mystery  to  all  but  the  man  who  marked  it  last,  and 
it  shows  the  use  of  old  packing  cases  over  and  over  again— all  of 
which  makes  a  bad  impression.  Such  cases  look  bad,  make  an  unfor- 
timate  impression,  and  cause  endless  trouble,  delay,  and  confusion. 

CARGO  HANDLING  BY  STEAMSfflP  COMPANIES  AND  OTHERS. 

As  has  been  shown  in  the  case  of  machinery,  the  best  packing  will 
not  withstand  careless  handling  by  stevedores.  However  well  packed 
and  protected  it  may  be,  if  a  case  of  goods  is  thrown  around  regard- 
less of  the  consequences,  it  will  finally  give  way  and  damage  will 
result. 

From  the  appearance  of  American  cargoes,  there  would  seem  to  be 
a  great  opportunity  for  improvement  in  cargo  handhng. 

Careful  and  skillful  handling  does  not  involve  any  decrease  in  the 
rapidit;^^  of  loading  and  unloading — often  the  reverse,  in  fact.  It  is 
a  question  of  knowledge  and  intelligent  supervision,  as  also  of  train- 
ing and  experience. 

With  American  cargoes,  breakage  is  the  rule  rather  than  the  ex- 
ception, and  it  is  really  discouragmg  to  see  the  condition  in  which 
some  American  cargoes  come  out  of  American  ships.  Steamship 
companies  should  see  the  harm  thej  are  doing  to  American  trade 
and  should  cooperate  with  the  American  exporter. 

HANDLING  OF  GOODS  IN  COLOMBIA. 

From  customhouse  to  river  steamer  and  from  river  steamer  or  rail- 
way to  warehouse,  all  goods  are  handled  in  small,  one-mule,  two- 
wheeled  carts.  No  four-wheeled  wagons  are  used  in  Colombia.  Usu- 
ally the  streets  are  too  narrow  to  permit  of  their  easy  use,  and,  also, 
the  native  mules  are  too  light  and  small  to  drive  up  weU  in  fours  with 
heavy  loads. 

Native  stevedores,  especially  at  the  customhouses,  are  very  care- 
less in  handling  merchandise  of  all  kinds  and  can  not  read  such 
notices  as  "Handle  with  care"  or  "This  side  up."  The  use  of  pic- 
tures to  i»isure  careful  handling  is  recommended  in  every  case,  i  The 
design  of  a  glass  holding  liquid  will  do  more  than  anything  else 
toward  insuring  "This  side  up;"  the  men  can  readily  understand 
that  the  box  is  not  to  be  turned  upside  down. 

MULE  TRANSPORT. 

Large  importing  wholesalers  in  Barranquilla  and  Cartagena,  as  well 
as  in  Medellin  and  Bogota,  generalljr  repack  goods  for  interior  points 
where  mule  transport  is  used.  This  repacking  is  done  upon  receipt 
of  order  from  the  interior  and  according  to  order  of  purchaser. 

English  cotton  goods  are  often  ordered  packed  at  the  factory  for 
mule  transport  into  the  interior,  but  this  necessitates  a  wide  knowl- 


APPEISTDIXES.  389 

edge  of  each  district  and  the  particular  patterns  wanted  by  each 
locality  (these  differing  greatly),  and  the  orders  are  for  small  lots. 
Such  orders  can  be  given  by  importers  only  when  they  have  absolute 
confidence  in  the  ability  of  the  factory  to  carry  out  instructions  to  the 
letter.  Bales  are  so  marked  and  listed  that  the  importer  knows 
what  is  in  each  one  and  all  about  it. 

There  is  given  below  a  list  of  cities  and  towns  for  which  goods 
ordered  direct  must  be  packed  for  mule  transport — that  is,  the  weight 
of  each  package  should  not  exceed  150  pounds.  A  mule  "carga  is 
300  pounds.  Two  packages  are  used  to  make  the  "pack" — one  on 
each  side  of  the  animal.  In  extreme  cases,  such  as  machinery,  etc., 
a  single  piece  of  300  pounds  may  be  sent  out,  but  in  such  instances 
there  should  be  a  prior  arrangement  with  the  purchaser,  since  such 
"cargas"  involve  the  charging  of  a  much  higher  freight  rate  by  the 
mule  packers. 

All  goods  for  mule  transport  should  be  protected,  where  necessary, 
from  damage  by  rain,  mud,  etc. 

Pilferage  is  not  usual  in  the  interior.  Packers  are  fairly  reliable 
in  this  respect.  Most  pilferage  takes  place  on  shipboard  or  at  the 
port  of  entry  and  on  such  routes  as  the  one  up  the  Magdalena  River 
to  Bogota,  on  which  goods  are  handled  no  fewer  than  six  times  before 
reaching  their  final  destination. 

Following  is  the  list  of  towns : 

Department  of  Magdalena. — Towns:  Valle  de  Upar,  Villa  Xueva,  Fonseca,  Palmira. 
Route:  Via  Rio  Hacha  or  Banco,  on  Magdalena  River. 

Department  ofAtlantico. — All  goods  for  interior  of  Department  repacked  by  Barran- 
quilla  importers. 

Department  of  Bolivar. — All  goods  for  interior  of  Department  repacked  by  importers 
of  coast  cities. 

Department  of  Antioquia. — Towns:  Nechi,  Yarumal,  Antioqnia,  Nare,  Jerico, 
Sonson.  Route:  Via  Magdalena  River  and  Antioquia  Railway  to  Medellin,  thence 
by  canoe  and  pack  mule. 

Departvu'ut  of  Caldas. — Manizales,  \'ia  ropeway  from  Dorada  Extension  Railway  at 
Marifjuita  to  end  of  ropeway  line  (not  yet  completed).  Neira,  by  pack  mule  from 
Manizales. 

Department  of  Tolimxi. — Ibague,  \ia  railway  from  Girardot. 

Department  of  El  Valle. — Cartago,  by  pack  mule  from  Manizales.  Buga,  by  pack 
mule  to  ("artago,  thence  by  river  steamer  up  Tauca  River:  also  by  river  steamer 
from  Cali. 

Departvient  of  Santander. — Bucaramanga,  via  Magdalena  River  to  Puerto  Wilches, 
thence  20  miles  by  rail,  thence  by  pack  mule.  Towns  of  Piedecuesta,  8an  Andres, 
Malaga,  Socorro,  and  Moniquira:   Route,  by  pack  mule  from  Bucaramanga. 

Department  of  Norte  de  Santander. — Ocana,  via  Cucuta  by  pack  mule:  also  from 
Banco,  on  Magdalena  River.     Pamplona,  by  pack  mule  from  Bucaramanga. 

Department  of  Boyam. — Towns:  Tunja,  Boyaca,  Sogamoso,  Tasco.  Route:  By 
pack  mule  from  Magdalena  River  stations. 

Department  of  Cundinamarca. —Gooda  are  repacked  in  Bogota  for  distribution  to 
other  towns. 

Department  of  Iluila. — -Towns:  Neiva,  Oarzon,  Timina.  Route:  By  canoes  from 
Girardot  up  Magdalena  River. 

Department  of  Cauca. — Popayan,  by  mule  pack  via  Guapi  or  Cali  (Pacific  coast). 

Department  of  Narino. — Pasto,  by  mule  pack  via  Cali  or  Tumaco  (Pacific  coast). 


Appendix  C— REGULATIONS  AND   PRACTICES  AFFECTING 
COMMERCIAL  TRAVELERS/ 

PASSPORTS— POWERS  OF  ATTORNEY. 

A  commercial  traveler  from  the  United  States,  if  an  American 
citizen — and  if  travelincr  for  American  houses  this  should  })e  a  prime 
requisite  -should  supply  himself  before  leaving  for  Colombia  with 
an  American  passport.  This  passport  should  then  be  taken  to  the 
Colombian  consular  representative  at  the  port  of  embarkation  foi- 
his  vise,  authorizing  the  traveler's  entry  into  Colombia.  If  the 
traveler  is  not  an  American  citizen,  he  should  procure  a  Colombian 
passport  from  the  Colombian  consul.  The  photograph  of  the  trav- 
eler should  appear  on  the  passport. 

A  special  power  of  attorney  is  advisable  in  case  the  traveler  should 
be  charged  with  collection  oi  accounts  or  have  any  reason  to  appear 
before  tne  courts  or  anv  ministry  of  the  Government  for  any  official 
purpose  or  to  enter  into  contracts  with  the  Government.  Th(> 
power  of  attorney  should  be  certified  by  a  notary  public,  secretary 
of  state  of  the  State  in  which  the  notary  resides.  Secretary  of  State 
of  the  United  States,  and  diplomatic  or  consular  representative  of 
Colombia. 

LICENSES. 

In  Colombia  a  commercial  traveler  is  free  to  transact  his  business 
without  any  further  formalities  on  the  part  of  the  general  Government 
after  passing  the  customhouse. 

Some  cities  have  a  municipal  tax,  and  the  traveler  must  secure 
a  license  before  exhibiting  his  samples.  These  are  Cartagena  and 
Medellin,  where  the  tax  is  from  $10  to  $20  for  the  calendar  year, 
payable  into  the  municipal  treasury.  The  license  is  issued  by  the 
alcalde  on  the  presentation  of  the  treasurer's  receipt. 

No  other  formalities  are  required  of  a  commercial  traveler  before 
he  is  permitted  to  begin  business,  and  there  is  no  restriction  as  to 
clientele.  It  may  be  mentioned,  in  passing,  that  the  hotel  registers 
in  Colombia  are  inspected  by  the  police. 

CUSTOMS  TREATMENT  OF  SAMPLES. 

Commercial  travelers  must  provide  themselves  with  a  consular 
invoice,  in  vSpanish,  covering  their  samples  and  fully  describing 
them,  which  must  be  certified  by  the  (\)lombian  consul  at  the  port 
of  embarkation.  On  arrival  at  the  Colombian  port  of  entry  a  mani- 
fest must  be  made,  in  quadruplicate,  bearinf]j  stamps  to  the  value  of 
$2.80,  and  presented  at  the  customhouse  with  the  consular  invoice. 
Upon  the  clearance  of  the  samples  one  copy  of  the  manifest  is 
returned  to  the  traveler  for  use  in  the  preparation  of  his  manifest 
for  reexportation,  which  must  agree  with  the  import  manifest, 
except  for  changes  through  sale,  loss,  etc.,  of  samples.     If  the  trav- 

'  This  section  is  by  Consul  Isaac  A.  Manning. 
390 


APPENDIXES.  '  391 

eler  is  not  familiar  with  the  customs  regulations  and  practice,  he 
will  usually  save  time  and  trouble  and,  perhaps,  money  by  making 
his  clearance  with  the  aid  of  some  reliable  importing  house  at  the 
port  of  entry,  which  can  be  readily  arranged  for  on  arrival. 

wSamples  of  no  commercial  value  may  be  imported  free  of  duty 
and  without  bond  or  security. 

All  other  samples  may  be  imported  temporarily  upon  payment 
of  full  duty,  with  a  refund  of  75  per  cent  of  the  duty  upon  their 
reexportation. 

If  the  traveler  fails  to  reexport  all  the  samples,  the  refund  is  lim- 
ited to  75  per  cent  of  the  duties  on  the  samples  actually  reexported. 

Reexportation  may  take  place  through  any  port.  The  refund  of  a 
part  of  the  duties  may  be  made  at  the  customhouse  of  original  entry,  on 
presentation  of  the  manifest,  and  due  notification  by  the  customhouse 
through  which  the  samples  were  exported,  or  the  traveler,  when  pay- 
ing duty  at  entry,  can  arrange  by  telegraphic  advice  for  refund  at 
port  of  reexportation.  In  the  former  case,  the  copy  of  the  manifest 
of  reexportation  received  by  the  traveler  should  be  sent,  properly  in- 
dorsed, to  an  agent  at  the  port  of  importation  for  the  collection  of  the 
refund.  In  order  to  be  entitled  to  the  refund  of  duty,  the  samples 
must  be  reexported  within  one  year  from  the  date  of  clearance. 

The  customs  authorities  as  a  rule  give  commercial  travelers'  baggage 
preference  over  all  other  effects  except  personal  baggage,  and  there 
is  usually  little  delay  in  clearance.  In  order  to  expedite  the  clearance 
of  his  baggage,  the  commercial  traveler  may  arrange  to  have  it  cleared 
thr'^(jgh  some  established  commercial  house  having  a  bond  at  the  cus- 
tomhouse, so  as  to  enable  him  to  get  his  samples  without  waiting  for 
liquidation  of  duties,  which  might  consume  several  days. 

The  customs  collectors  interpret  ''muestras  sin  valor,"  or  ''samples 
without  value,"  to  mean  those  that  have  absolutely  no  commercial 
value  and  therefore  are  not  salable  and  can  be  used  only  for  the  pur- 
pose of  negotiating  sales. 

The  following  restrictions  are  placed  on  samples  subject  to  free 
admission:  Samples  of  cloth,  felt,  and  colored  papers  must  not  exceed 
40  centimeters  (about  16  inches)  in  length,  measured  in  the  direction 
of  the  warp,  although  they  may  have  the  full  width  of  the  piece. 
Larger  samples  of  such  material  must  be  mutilated  by  cuts  20  centi- 
meters (about  8  inches)  apart. 

Samples  of  oilcloth  must  not  exceed  .30  centimeters  (about  12  inches) 
in  either  direction. 

Samples  of  rope,  metal  threads,  or  wooden  moldings  must  not 
exceed  8  centimeters  (about  3  inches)  in  length. 

Samples  of  wines,  liquors,  and  similar  beverages  must  come  in  con- 
tainers of  a  capacity  not  exceeding  half  a  liter  (0.52  quart). 

Jewelry  and  plate  of  any  metal  must  be  mutilated. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

In  certain  respects,  the  best  season  of  the  year  for  travel  in  Colombia 
is  from  December  to  May,  the  rainy  season  lasting  from  June  to  No- 
vember. It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  the  Magdalena  River  is 
most  readily  navigable  from  May  to  November. 

Merchants  of  Barranquilla  usually  ''stock  up"  on  women's  goods, 
haberdashery,  etc.,  about  the  time  of  the  Christmas  holidays  for  these 


392    col-ombta:  a  commercial  aitd  todttstrial  handbook. 

and  the  Mardi  Gras  festivities  of  January  and  February,  while  the 
celebration  of  independence  (Nov.  11)  marks  Cartagena's  special  social 
season.  The  end  of  the  coffee  season  is  the  principal  buying  time  for 
the  interior. 

Neither  railways  nor  steamboat  lines  grant  reduced  baggage  rates 
to  commercial  travelers. 

Commercial  travelers  will  probably  find  daily  expenses  amount  to 
anywhere  from  $4.50  per  day  upwara,  depending  greatly  on  the  lines 
represented.  Actual  expenses  of  travel  in  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru, 
Panama,  and  Costa  Rica,  covering  a  four-month  period  by  a  traveler 
for  a  large  machinery  house  in  the  United  States  (carrying  no  samples) 
averaged  $15  per  day. 

One  other  commercial  traveler  estimates  his  expenses  at  from  $35 
to  $50  per  week,  including  laundry  and  entertainment.  One  requir- 
ing a  showroom  would  have  to  add  about  $10  per  week.  Personal 
amusement  will  also  be  found  a  necessary  and  important  item  in  most 
South  American  countries.  It  is  impossible  to  give  expense  estimates, 
exclusive  of  transportation,  in  Colombia,  because  so  much  of  a  trav- 
eler's time,  if  he  visits  the  interior,  is  spent  in  travel.  He  can  probably 
visit  the  coast  towns,  Bogota,  Honda,  and  Medellin,  on  an  average  of 
$10  per  day,  exclusive  of  expenses  incurred  on  account  of  excess 
baggage,  sample  room,  and  carriage  hire. 


Appendix  D.— TRAVEL  NOTES. 

For  the  guidance  of  commercial  travelers  or  other  Americans  who 
may  visit  Colombia,  there  are  presented  below  certain  observations 
and  directions,  representing  the  result  of  actual  experience  in 
traversing  the  waterways,  railways,  and  mountain  trails  of  the 
Republic. 

Since  the  problems  of  travel  in  Colombia  are  unusually  difficult 
and  perplexing,  it  is  believed  that  such  a  series  of  notes  will  serve  a 
useful  purpose  by  indicating  to  the  traveler  the  conditions  to  be 
encountered,  the  things  to  be  avoided,  and  the  measures  that  should 
be  taken  in  order  to  insure  the  greatest  practicable  degree  of  comfort, 
safety,  and  expedition. 

The  trips  covered  by  these  "  Travel  Notes"  include  the  principal 
ones  ordinarily  taken  by  business  men  visiting  the  country. 

SANTA  MARTA  TO  BARRANQUILLA. 

The  Santa  ^Nlarta  Railway  Co.  maintains  a  steamer  service  from  Cienaga  to  Bar- 
ranqnilla,  with  sailings  twice  a  week,  on  Tuesdays  and  Saturdays,  the  boats  con- 
necting with  the  train  from  Santa  Marta.  The  fare  by  rail  to  Cienaga,  a  distance  of 
22  miles,  is  $1.40  Colombian  ($1.36  U.  S.  currency);  and  the  boat  fare  to  Barranquilla 
is  $3  ($2.92  U.  S.  currency)  first  class  and  $1  ($0.97  U.  S.  currency)  second  class. 
There  are  two  staterooms,  which  must  be  reserved  and  for  which  an  extra  charge  of 
$2  ($1.95  U.  S.  currency)  is  made.  These  are  mere  wooden  inclosures  on  deck, 
equipped  with  nothing  but  a  folding  canvas  cot  without  bedding.  First-class 
passengers  are  provided  %vith  canvas  cots  on  deck  at  night,  but  are  expected  to  furnish 
their  own  pillows,  mats,  and  sheets,  as  well  as  soap,  towels,  etc.  Meals  are  served  on 
board,  but  the  discriminating  traveler  will  carry  a  hamper  of  lunch  and  also  provade 
bottled  water  ^or  drinking  purposes. 

The  route  from  (^ienaga  to  Barranquilla  is  through  swamps  and  channels  formed 
by  the  delta  of  the  Magdalena  River.  There  is  an  open  but  very  shallow  body  of 
water  called  "La  Cienaga,"  which  reaches  as  far  as  the  ocean,  and  the  steamers 
approach  Ciena^  through  an  artificial,  dredged  channel.  About  two-thirds  of  the 
distance  of  50  miles  to  Barranquilla  is  through  very  narrow  channels  called  "canales," 
the  draft  being  not  over  2  feet  6  inches  and  impossible  of  navigation  by  vessels  any 
larger  than  those  employed.  Progress  is  slow  and  very  difficult,  ^^ith  many  chances 
of  running  aground.  The  boat  stops  several  times  during  the  voyage  to  take  on  more 
wood  for  fuel,  and  this  is  a  tedious  process,  so  that  the  speed  made  is  not  more  than  5 
miles  per  hour. 

Only  when  privacy  is  necessary  should  the  staterooms  be  taken,  as  they  are  too 
hot  and  unventilated  to  allow  one  to  remain  in  them  very  long.  The  trip  should 
not  be  made  at  night,  if  that  is  avoidable,  on  account  of  the  myriads  of  mosquitoes 
encountered  in  going  through  the  swamps.  "^Tien  the  boat  stops  (as  it  frequently 
does),  passengers  are  covered  with  these  pests,  dangerous  on  account  of  malaria. 
Travelers  should  pro\'ide  themselves  with  good  close-mesh  folding  mosquito  bars  as 
part  of  their  baggage,  although  such  are  not  in  use  by  the  natives. 

The  trip  by  daylight  is  not  unattractive.  The  snow-capped  peaks  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  are  seen  to  the  east,  and  the  swamp  life  and  vegetation  are  interesting. 
Approaching  Barranquilla  one  begins  to  see  cattle  pastures  on  the  higher  ground, 
where  the  land  has  been  cleared,  fenced,  and  planted  to  para  or  guinea  CTass.  Here 
the  cowboys'  means  of  locomotion  is  a  long,  narrow  dugout  canoe.  Many  large 
alligators  are  seen  and  also  flocks  of  the  famous  aigrette  heron,  or  "garza." 

It  is  said  by  people  who  have  been  over  the  ground  that  a  fine  automobile  road 
could  easily  be  made  between  Santa  Marta  and  Barranquilla  by  using  the  natural 
roadway  of  the  Island  of  Salamanca  lying  along  the  coast,  where  no  road  work  would 
have  to  be  done  for  the  greater  part  of  the  total  distance.    A  short  stretch  of  elevated 

393 


394    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial,  handbook. 

road  would  have  to  be  put  in  near  Santa  Marta  and  some  piling  used  near  the  Barran- 
quilla  end,  with  a  ferry  across  the  Magdalena  River  at  Barranquilla.  Such  a  route 
could  not  at  present  be  made  commercially  profitable,  because  motor  traffic  over  it 
could  not  compete  with  the  low  prices  charged  by  the  natives  for  transporting  freight 
in  dugouts.     These  are  poled  through  the  swamps  at  a  very  insignificant  figure. 

CARIBBEAN  CO.AST  TO  PUERTO  BERRIO. 

CONDITION  OF  RIVER. 

Tiie  Magdalena  River,  in  its  lower  reaches,  below  Puerto  Berrio,  is  very  wide  be- 
tween its  main  banks — in  some  places  reaching  a  total  width  of  more  than  a  mile,  but 
this  great  area  is  not  always  covered  with  water.  During  the  dry  season  of  the  year, 
the  volume  of  water  is  ver>[  small,  compared  with  the  width  of  the  river;  the  na\  igable 
channels  are  narrow  and  interrupted  by  large  and  small  sand  bars  and  mud  banks 
which  constantly  change  position.  River  pilots  watch  the  current  for  deep  water, 
since  there  are  no  aids  to  navigation,  these  latter  being  impracticable  on  accofmt  of 
the  constant  change  in  the  channels. 

It  is  also  impossible,  during  the  dry  season,  to  run  at  night;  the  boats  are  tied  up  to 
the  bank  at  some  convenient  wood  pile,  and  the  hours  of  darkness  are  used  to  load  wood 
for  fuel  for  the  folloAving  day. 

There  are  also  many  islands,  some  of  them  inhabited  and  used  for  farming  on  a  very 
small  scale  and  as  pastures  for  cattle.  Some  of  these  islands  are  very  large,  the  riv^er 
passing  on  either  side  and  in  places  forming  many  channels,  confusing  to  the  river 

f)ilot8.     The  islands  are  being  constantly  eroded  by  the  river,  with  the  consequent 
ormation  of  new  sand  bars  and  banks,  which  gradually  become  new  "islands." 

In  other  places  the  river  has  spread  out  into  great  "lakes"  of  very  shallow  water, 
sometimes  a  mile  or  more  in  width.  In  many  places  swamps  have  been  formed  by 
the  overflow  water  during  the  rainy,  or  flood,  seasons.  These  swamps  cover  enormous 
areas  on  both  sides  of  the  river  and  are  impassable  for  any  craft  except  the  small  dug- 
outs of  the  natives,  who  know  the  narrow  channels  and  the  intricacies  of  the  tropical 
water  growth. 

The  water  of  the  river,  even  in  the  dry  season,  carries  considerable  silt  and  haB  a 
muddy  appearance. 

During  the  rainy  season,  steamers  go  up  the  river  from  Barranquilla  to  La  Dorada 
(the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Lower  River),  a  distance  of  987  kilometers  (617  miles) 
in  five  days,  running  at  night  on  the  Lower  River  as  far  up  as  Gamarra.  They  come 
down  in  three  days  with  the  swift  current.  This  applies  to  express  steamers  which 
stop  only  for  wood  fuel  and  for  mail  at  such  towns  as  Sambrano,  Magangue,  Banco,  La 
Gloria,  Camarra,  Bodega  Central,  Puerto  Wilches,  and  Barranca  Bermeja. 

STEAMERS  AND  SERVICE. 

The  river  steamers  are  all  of  the  stem-wheel  type.  The  hulls  are  built  of  steel,  with 
light  wooden  upper  works,  and  the  models  are  all  of  the  so-called  "spoon-bow  "  type, 
this  type  having  been  foimd  to  lie  the  best  on  accoimt  of  the  many  encoimters  with 
sand  bars,  snags,  and  other  obstructions  in  the  river. 

Service  is  divided  into  three  classes — (1)  express  passenger  and  freight  service,  (2) 
intermediate  passenger  and  freight  service,  and  (3)  ordinary  freight  servdce.  Express 
boats  stop  only  at  the  more  important  towns  and  caiTy  the  mail  to  and  from  the  inte- 
rior. These  steamers  have  the  right  of  way  over  all  other  river  traffic.  "  Interme- 
diate" boats  make  more  stops,  carry  more  heavy  freight,  and  usuallv  t^ke  twice  as 
long  to  make  the  rim  as  the  express  boats.  These  boats  are  not  as  large  or  as  well 
equipped  as  the  express  steamers,  which  latter  are  furnished  with  ice-making  machines, 
electric  lights,  shower  baths,  and  electric  fans  in  the  staterooms.  On  express  steamers 
an  electric  player  piano  is  also  provided  for  the  diversion  of  the  passengers. 

During  the  dry  season,  the  trip  from  Barranquilla  may  consume  anywhere  from 
one  to  three  weeks,  according  to  the  condition  of  the  river  and  the  luck  with  sand  bars 
and  other  obstructions  encountered  en  route.  In  such  times,  an  entire  day  is  often 
spent  in  seeking  out  a  channel  through  the  bars  and  islands  with  enough  water  to 
float  the  boat  through. 

A  common  occurrence  is  for  the  boat  to  become  so  fast  on  a  bar  that  plates  are  dam- 
aged and  the  boat  rendered  useless.  Then  the  passengers  have  to  wait  patiently  for 
another  boat  to  be  sent  out  to  transfer  them  and  continue  the  trip  up  or  down  the  river, 
as  the  case  may  be. 


APPENDIXES.  395 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  RIVER  TRAVEL. 

The  staterooms  on  the  express  boats  must  be  engaged  in  advance,  a  charge  of  20  per 
cent  in  excess  of  the  regular  first-class  fare  being  made  for  this  accommodation.  If  a 
room  is  wanted  for  one  person  only,  a  charge  of  40  per  cent  in  excess  of  fare  is  made. 
If  no  stateroom  is  available,  passengers  are  provided  with  a  folding  canvas  cot  and  sleep 
on  deck. 

On  the  express  boats,  staterooms  are  furnished  with  a  canvas  cot,  a  washbowl,  and 
a  water  pitcher — nothing  more.  Passengers  must  provide  their  own  outfit,  consisting 
of  mat,  two  sheets,  a  pillow,  a  mosquito  net,  towels,  soap,  etc.,  and  a  small  traveling- 
case  mirror  will  be  found  convenient.  The  better  boats  on  the  express  service  have 
electric  fans  in  the  staterooms  and  the  dining  room .  As  the  heat  is  terrific  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year  (at  night  as  well  as  in  the  daytime),  the  traveler  should  inform  himself, 
before  engaging  passage,  whether  the  boat  is  equipped  with  fans  or  not.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  stay  in  these  rooms  after  9  o'clock  in  the  morning,  on  account  of  the  heat. 
About  the  only  place  on  the  boat  where  anv  degree  of  comfort  may  be  obtained  during 
the  day  is  in  the  dining-room  space,  which  is  open  fore  and  aft,  the  after  portion  of  the 
first  deck  being  devoted  to  kitchen  offices  and  the  boilers  being  under  the  forward 
end  on  the  main-hull  deck,  under  the  passenger  deck,  making  this  part  of  the  craft 
too  hot. 

The  upper  deck,  or  "texas,"  is  exposed  to  the  sun  and  can  not  be  used  except  at 
night,  when  it  becomes  an  unpleasant  and  possibly  dangerous  place  on  account  of 
the  mosquitoes  and  other  insects.  When  the  boat  ties  up  to  the  bank  for  the  night 
insects  become  so  numerous  that  one  has  to  take  refuge  in  the  stateroom  under  ithe 
mosquito  net,  with  the  fan  in  operation. 

The  food  is  very  poor  and  badly  prepared  and  served.  Meat  is  used  to  excess,  and 
the  traveler  will  do  well  to  proWde  himself  with  a  few  cans  of  fniits,  vegetables,  etc. 
Mineral  water  can  be  purchased  on  all  express  boats,  and  its  use  is  recommended  for 
drinking  purposes. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  avoid  infection,  and  fever  specifics  should  be 
used  to  prevent  malaria. 

It  will  be  found  impossible  to  do  any  clerical  work  or  writing  on  board,  except 
early  in  the  morning  before  9  o'clock.  After  that  hour  tlie  rooms  become  too  heated 
for  one  to  remain  in  them  for  any  length  of  time,  and  the  dining  space  becomes  too 
crowded  for  work.  Reading  matter  should  be  pro\'ided;  it  will  prove  to  be  the 
traveler's  best  friend  and  will  aid  in  overcoming  the  monotony  of  the  river  journey. 

When  one  goes  ashore  at  tlie  various  stops  the  water  there  should  not  be  taken  nor 
should  one  purchase  the  confections  offered  for  sale,  as  the  conditions  imder  which 
these  latter  are  made  are  not  sanitary  and  disease  is  ver^  prevalent.  Travelers  going 
ashore  should  not  endeavor  to  penetrate  into  the  tropical  growth,  unless  there  is  a 
wide  cleared  path  or  road;  this  precaution  is  to  avoid  the  ticks,  chiggers,  and  other 
insects,  which  will  result  in  discomfort. 

An  important  item  of  equipment  is  a  pair  of  large  colored  spectacles,  since  the  glare 
of  the  Sim  on  the  water  is  very  trying  on  the  eyes.  A  good  cork  sun  helmet  of  approved 
make  is  the  best  head  covering  out  in  the  country,  but  this  is  too  heavy  to  wear  on 
board  the  steamers.  A  good  wide-brimmed  Panama  hat  wiU  be  found  the  most 
comfortable  lieadgear.  Blankets  are  not  necessary  on  the  river,  though  a  light  cov- 
ering, such  as  a  bedspread,  should  be  carried  to  avoid  the  chill  of  the  tropical  morning 
after  a  hot  night. 

Palm  Beach  or  white  duck  clothing  is  used,  and  a  good  grade  of  light  khaki  will  be 
found  very  suitable  for  the  river  trip  on  account  of  the  dirty  condition  of  the  boats, 
white  cloths  soiling  too  readily. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  ANTIOQUIA. 

HOTEL  MAGDALENA. 

Upon  leaxnng  the  Magdalena  River  at  Puerto  Berrio,  the  traveler  is  favorably 
impressed  with  the  Hotel  Magdalena,  situated  on  a  hill  within  a  few  hundred  yards 
of  the  river  bank.  This  hotel  was  built  by  the  government  of  the  Department  of 
Antioquia  and  is  operated  in  connection  with  the  railway  service  of  the  Antioquia 
Railway,  the  principal  object  being  to  i)rovide  a  comfortable,  modern,  and  hygienic 
stopping  place  for  travelers  bound  in  or  out  of  the  Department.  This  is  the  best 
hotel  in  tlie  entire  country,  with  the  exception  of  those  in  Bogota,  the  capital.  Among 
its  features  are  the  modem  white-tiled  baths— a  great  boon  to  the  river  passengers. 
The  food  served  is  excellent,  and  the  time  can  be  spent  here  very  comfortably  while 
one  is  waiting  for  a  river  steamer  or  for  a  train  into  the  interior  of  the  Department. 
The  building  was  designed  by  an  American  architect  and  is  constructed  of  reinforced 


396    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial,  and  industrial  handbook. 

concrete,  with  all  interior  fittings  of  hardwood.    All  floors  are  of  tile  laid  in  cement, 
and  all  features  are  specially  adapted  to  the  tropical  climate. 

TOWN  OF  PUERTO  BERRIO. 

The  town  of  Puerto  Berrio  is  the  river  port  for  the  Department  of  Antioquia.  Through 
tliis  place  pass  all  of  the  goods  shipped  in  to  Medellin  from  the  coast  and  foreign 
markets;  ruerto  Berrio  also  handles  all  the  exports  of  coffee  from  the  Department 
of  Antioquia,  which  produces  40  per  cent  of  the  coffee  crop  of  Colombia.  There  is 
also  a  continuous  commerce  with  the  interior  of  the  country  in  "panela"  (broAvn- 
sugar  cakes),  of  which  Antioquia  produces  22,000,000  annually  and  sells  large  quan- 
tities to  the  interior  of  the  country.  Considerable  tobacco  is  also  imported,  princi- 
pally from"  the  Department  of  Santander,  \ia  Puerto  Wilchee^  Gamarra,  etc.  Ap- 
proximately 70,000  head  of  cattle  are  imported  into  Antioquia  annually  from  the 
Department  of  Bolivar,  and  about  one-half  of  these  are  brought  up  the  river  on  scowf 
and  shipped  into  Medellin  via  the  Antioquia  Railway.  For  a  description  of  the  town 
of  Puerto  Berrio  itself,  the  reader  is  referred  to  page  231. 

ANTIOQUIA  RAILWAY:  NUS  DIVISION. 

One  train  of  mixed  passenger  and  freight  cars  is  run  out  of  Puerto  Berrio  over  the 
Nus  Division  to  Cisneros  each  day,  leaving  at  6  a.  m.  First,  second,  and  third  class 
coaches  are  provided. 

The  road  winds  in  a  series  of  many  curves  in  a  general  westerly  direction  irntil  the 
Nus  River  is  reached  at  a  point  between  Pavas  ana  San  Rafael.  The  maximum  grade 
to  this  point  of  crossing  the  Nus  River  is  4.25  per  cent  and  the  average  grade  2.733  per 
cent.  All  tangents  and  curves  are  90  meters  in  minimum  radius.  After  crossing  the 
Nus  at  Monos,  the  road  strikes  to  the  northwest,  paralleling  the  Nus  River  on  the 
south  bank  until  the  headwaters  are  reached  at  Providencia.  From  there  the  road 
takes  a  general  westerly  direction  to  Cisneros,  the  present  terminal  point  of  the  Nus 
Division.  New  work  is  in  progress  as  far  as  El  Limon — 7  kilometers  from  Cisneros 
proper — ^and  reaching  as  far  as  the  proposed  tunnel  site  under  the  mountain  of  La 
Quiebra. 

The  distance  from  Puerto  Berrio  to  Cisneros  is  109  kilometers  (approximately  68 
miles),  the  distance  over  the  wagon  road  from  Cisneros  to  Santiago  is  14.7  kilometers 
(9  miles),  and  the  distance  from  Santiago  to  Medellin  by  rail  is  72  kilometers  (45 
miles). 

The  railway  from  Puerto  Berrio  follows  the  grade  along  the  hillsides,  with  many 
short  curves  and  heavy  grades.  There  are  many  places  where  the  road  could  be 
shortened  and  straight  pulls  made  possible  bjr  large  fills  and  steel  viaducts.  The 
entire  route  is  a  mass  of  hills,  with  high  mountains  nsing  several  thousands  of  feet  out 
of  the  narrow  valley  through  which  the  railway  passes.  At  Puerto  Berrio  and  for  some 
distance  toward  Cisneros  the  country  is  tropical,  like  the  Magdalena  River  valley,  but, 
after  one  passes  San  Rafael  at  the  Nus  River,  the  country  changes  in  appearance  as  the 
mining  section  is  approached  and  greater  elevation  is  attained.  From  here  on  into 
Medellin  one  is  reminded  of  the  old  gold  country  of  California  around  Oroville  and 
the  F'eather  River  region,  though  the  vegetation  is  very  different,  there  being  no  pine 
or  oak  here.  The  formation  is  red  clay  and  iron-stained  decomposed  porphyry,  inter- 
spersed with  great  granite  bowlders.  The  streams  and  creeks,  of  which  tnere  are 
many,  are  swift  and  rocky.  At  La  Quiebra  there  are  several  waterfalls  on  the  sides 
of  the  mountains,  estimated  to  produce  sufficient  electric  horsepower  for  an  electric 
traction  railway  over  this  mountain. 

All  construction  work  has  been  accomplished  by  means  of  hand  labor,  and  the  only 
modern  appliances  used  are  the  small  Decauville  portable  hand  cars  with  which  fills 
are  made  and  ballast  taken  out  of  rock  cuts,  etc.  An  enormous  amount  of  work  has 
been  done  in  this  manner  all  along  this  railway.  Sides  of  cuts  have  to  be  faced  with 
stone  in  many  places  to  prevent  erosion  when  heavy  rains  come  during  the  two  rainy 
seasons  in  this  region,  and  there  are  many  great  dirt  fills  containing  200,000  cubic 
meters  of  earth.  In  this  difficult  country — a  mass  of  hills  and  mountains,  with  all  sorts 
of  natural  conditions  to  contend  with — this  railway  stands  out  as  a  monument  to 
industry  and  ingenuity  in  the  face  of  odds. 

LA  QUIEBRA  PASS. 

Arriving  at  Cisneros,  the  traveler  has  the  choice  of  two  means  of  crossing  the  moun- 
tain to  Santiago,  the  end  of  the  Porce  Division  leading  to  Medellin.  A  carriage  may 
be  hired  or  the  journey  may  be  made  by  saddle  animal.  Leaving  Puerto  Berrio,  the 
train  arrives  at  Cisneros  at  11  a.  m.,  ana  the  trip  over  the  mountain  can  be  made  on 


APPENDIXES.  397 

horseback  in  about  1^  hours,  but,  as  the  train  does  not  leave  Santiago  for  Medellin 
until  4  p.  m.,  travelers  either  take  lunch  at  Cisneros  before  starting  over  the  mountain 
or  go  to  the  top  of  La  Quiebra  for  lunch  at  a  rather  good  inn  there.  The  stop  at  La 
Quiebra  is  very  welcome,  as  it  relieves  the  hard  ride,  rests  the  saddle  or  carriage  ani- 
mals, and  gives  one  an  opportunity  to  enjoy  the  truly  beautiful  scenery  and  the  moun- 
tain air  after  so  many  days  spent  on  the  tropical  river.  The  elevation  of  La  Quiebra 
at  the  highest  point  on  the  wagon  road  is  1,650  meters,  or  5,080  feet,  above  sea  level. 
Cisneros  has  an  elevation  of  1,055  meters,  or  3,380  feet.  La  Quiebra  pass  is  1,700  feet 
in  the  perpendicular  above  the  town  of  Cisneros  and  1,250  feet  higher  than  Santiago. 

When  one  is  not  encumbered  with  small  hand  baggage,  it  is  advisable  to  make  the 
trip  on  horseback  over  the  mountains.  This  methc^is  more  rapid  than  by  carriage, 
as  the  animals  provided  in  the  latter  case  are  email  and  in  poor  condition  and  can  not 
make  good  time  pulling  a  heavy  vehicle  up  the  grade.  If  the  ride  is  made  on  horse- 
back in  the  rainy  season,  the  traveler  would  do  well  to  have  his  poncho  or  other  water- 
proof garment  out  and  tied  to  the  cantle  of  the  saddle  to  avoid  a  wetting.  If  one  is 
encumbered  with  small  or  valuable  hand  baggage,  the  trip  is  made  by  carriage,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  raining.  The  charge  for  this  service  (which  is  not  included  in  the  railway 
fare  or  arrangements)  is  $1  for  a  saddle  animal  and  $8  for  a  carriage  for  two  persons,  or 
$5  for  one  person,  plus  the  charge  for  saddle  animal,  which  is  understood  by  custom  to 
be  included. 

The  La  Quiebra  wagon  road  is  a  well-built  mountain  road ;  the  maximum  curve 
radius  is  70  meters;  the  macadamized  surface  is  3^  meters  in  width,  with  a  total  width 
of  crowned  surface  of  5  meters.  The  average  gradient  is  6  per  cent.  Over  this  road 
pass  all  the  imports  and  exports  of  Medellin  and  the  interior  of  the  Department  of 
Antiocjuia. 

All  treight  is  handled  by  means  of  small  two-wheeled  carts  drawn  by  small  native 
mules  and  loading  from  6  to  8  sacks  of  coffee — that  is,  a  total  weight  of  from  850  to  1 ,140 
pounds  per  cart  cargo.  Many  pack  mules  are  also  used,  the  pack  animals  competing  ^ 
with  the  mule  carts  in  this  traffic,  which  is  controlled  and  contracted  for  by  the  rail- 
way.  There  are  also  a  few  four-wheeled  wagons  which  are  iised  for  heaHy  pieces 
mo^ing  over  this  route,  and,  in  a  hea\y  coffee-harvest  season,  these  wagons  are  used 
to  expedite  the  work  of  freighting  coffee. 

This  vehicle  equipment  is  very  poor  and  presents  a  somewhat  dilapidated  appear- 
ance. The  harness  of  the  mules  consists  of  a  collar  and  trace  chains — nothing  more — 
ropes  being  used  for  reins  on  the  wheel  animal.  No  real  driving  (as  this  term  is  prop- 
erly understood)  is  done,  the  mules  being  practically  ' '  herded  "  along  the  road.  This 
seems  to  be  customary  in  all  Latin  American  countries  where  small  native  mules  are 
used.     It  is  also  noted  that  little  care  is  given  the  animals  used. 

Crossing  over  La  Quiebra  Pass  is  an  interesting:  experience  to  the  traveler.  A  great 
contrast  in  the  people  is  noted,  as  compared  with  the  natives  of  the  coast.  Every- 
where there  are  small  houses,  of  one  room  and  a  "lean-to"  kitchen  arrangement. 
These  tiny  houses  are  built  of  mud,  molded  into  shape, K)r  of  cane  "wattle"  plastered 
with  the  prevalent  red  clay,  and  the  roofs  are  most  commonly  of  thatch,  but  sometimes, 
in  the  better  houses,  of  round  tile,  made  on  the  ground  or  near  by. 

There  is  water  everywhere  along  the  road,  and  one  rather  large  waterfall  is  passed. 
Bananas  and  sugar  cane,  and  also  yucca,  a  staple  food  article,  are  grown  everywhere, 
even  on  the  steep  sides  of  the  mountain.  Hardly  asquareyard  of  cultivable  space  is 
wasted  by  these  industrious  people.  No  large  farms  are  seen,  all  agriculture  (on 
account  of  the  broken  nature  oi  the  region )  being  in  the  hands  of  small  farmers.  Many 
small  native  cattle  are  raised,  and  these  are  pastured  on  the  short  grass  of  the  moun- 
tainsides. 

BAGGAGE. 

All  steamers  arri\-ing  at  Puerto  Berrio  are  met  by  agents  of  baggage  companies  from 
Medellin  who  make  a  business  of  taking  care  of  travelers'  baggage  from  Puerto  Berrio 
to  Medellin.  Baggage  is  received  on  board  the  boat,  taken  ashore  to  the  railway 
station  for  customs  inspection,  weighing,  and  checking,^  loaded  on  cars,  and  handled 
over  La  Quiebra  Pass  in  time  for  the  train  at  Santiago,  being  delivered  to  the  passenger 
the  following  day  at  his  lodgings  in  Medellin.  A  receipt  is  ^xen  for  baggage  received 
by  the  agent  at  Puerto  Berrio,  and  the  passenger,  by  avaihng  himself  of  this  service, 
is  relieved  of  a  great  deal  of  trouble^  annoyance,  and  danger  of  loss  of  baggage.  Other- 
wise, there  would  be  endless  difficulty  at  Puerto  Berrio,  Cisneros,  Santiago,  and 
Medellin.  The  railway  companies  in  Colombia  do  not  maintain  a  baggage-checking 
sj-stem  as  in  the  United  States,  and  no  responsibility  is  acknowledged  for  transporta- 
tion of  baggage. 

All  trunks  and  dunnage  bags  should  be  seciirely  locked  and  valuable  hand  baggage 
personally  taken  care  of,  since  there  is  much  pilferage  and  loss. 


398    COLOMBIA:  a  commercial  and  industrial  handbook. 

ANTIOQUIA  RAILWAY:  FORCE  DIVISION. 

After  one  crosses  La  Quiebra  Pass,  the  train  leaves  the  station  of  Santiago  at  4  p.  m. 
for  Medellin.  a  distance  of  72  kilometers,  or  approximately  45  miles.  It  arrives  at 
Medellin  at  7  p.  m.  The  track  follows  the  Rio  Force,  crossing  it  between  Botero  and 
Porcecito  stations  and  then  taking  a  general  southwesterly  direction  up  the  river  to 
Medellin ,  which  is  on  the  headwaters  of  the  Rio  Porce. 

This  is  an  enjoyable  ride.  The  scenery  is  beautiful,  there  being  high  mountains 
along  either  side  of  the  valley  through  which  the  railway  runs,  and  everywhere  small 
towns,  villages,  and  tiny  farms,  of  sugar  cane,  bananas,  and  yucca.  There  is  also 
considerable  open  ground  on  which  cattle  are  pastured.  The  river  is  narrow  and  swift 
all  along  the  route,  and  everywhere  are  seen  evidences  of  old  placer  mining  operations. 
The  Rio  Porce  is  the  richest  gold  river  in  the  country,  but  the  upper  reaches  have 
been  worked  out  long  ago  by  the  native  gold  washers. 

The  roadbed  on  the  Porce  division  is  even  better  than  that  of  the  Nus  di\'ision, 
and  one  is  greatly  impressed  by  the  attractive  railway  stations  all  along  this  route. 
The  buildings  are  all  of  concrete,  with  round  tile  roofs  of  attractive  design,  and  all 
stations  are  surrounded  with  flower  gardens  and  whitewashed  stone  borders,  etc. 
Ample  platforms  of  cement  are  also  provided,  and  the  entire  system  speaks  very  well 
for  the  Department  of  Antioquia.  The  passenger  is  again  impressed  by  the  truly 
beautiful  railway  station  in  Medellin.  This  building  is  of  concrete  throughout  and  is 
very  modem,  having  an  intercommunicating  office  telephone  system,  etc..  among  its 
features. 

Coal  is  used  for  fuel  by  the  railway  on  the  Porce  Division.  This  coal  comes  from 
the  Amaga  fields  and  is  brought  in  to  Medellin  by  the  Amaga  Railway.  This  coal  is 
highly  volatile  but  can  be  delivered  at  Santiago  for  less  than  $4  per  ton. 

Steam  brakes  are  used  on  all  of  the  locomotives,  hand  brakes  being  lused  on  the  cars. 

A  fairly  good  wagon  road  parallels  the  Porce  Di\ision  out  of  Medellin  and  down 
the  river  as  far  as  Barbosa,  passing  through  the  towns  of  Copacalmna.  Girardota.  and 
Concepcion.  While  this  road  is  not  so  good  as  the  road  at  La  Quiebra,  it  ia  passal)le 
for  automobiles  and  wagon  traffic  and  is  well  maintained.  It  is  very  little  used, 
however,  by  wheeled  vehicles  except  near  Medellin  and  suburbs. 

AMAGA  RAILWAY. 

The  Amaga  Railway  runs  south  from  Medellin  to  the  town  of  Amaga.  This  is  also  a 
narrow-gauge  line,  36  inches  in  width,  and  of  the  same  character  and  type  as  the 
Antioquia  Railway,  except  that  all  equipment  is  much  lighter  and  smaller,  only 
15-ton  locomotives  being  used.  The  rails  from  Medellin  as  far  as  thfe  watershed,  also 
called  La  Quiebra,  where  the  line  leaves  the  headwaters  of  the  Porce  River,  are  of 
40-pound  steel,  and  from  there  on  down  the  grade  to  the  valley  of  Amaga  tlie  rails 
weigh  60  pounds  per  yard.  At  the  time  of  the  preparation  of  this  report,  42  kilometers 
were  in  operation — with  5  kilometers  of  new  work,  reacliing  as  far  as  the  town  of 
A  maga,  which  were  about  ready  for  track  laying  and  which  it  was  expected  to  put  into 
service  during  1919.  Construction  work  is  being  rushed,  and  plans  are  under  way  for 
a  continuation  of  this  line. 

The  object  of  this  road  is  to  provide  an  outlet  to  the  Cauca  River  from  Medellin. 
With  such  conne(;tion,  the  Department  of  Antioquia  will  have  an  outlet  on  the  Pacific 
coast  through  Cali  to  Buenaventura.  The  line  is  constructed  with  a  maximum  curve 
radius  of  80  meters  and  a  40-degree  allowance. 

There  are  no  tunnels  or  heavy  bridges,  the  line  following  the  grade  along  the  hill- 
sides; an  average  of  166,000  cubic  meters  of  dirt  were  moved  for  every  kilometer  of 
line  after  reaching  the  heavy  work  at  La  Quiebra,  just  south  of  the  town  of  Caldas, 
where  the  road  passes  over  the  watershed  after  leaving  the  headwaters  of  the  Porce 
River.  There  are  50  small  steel  bridges,  the  largest  being  over  the  Porce  River, 
(here  called  Medellin  River),  with  a  total  length  between  abutments  of  24  meters 
(78.7  feet). 

The  gradients  are  as  follows:  Medellin  to  Sabaneta.  kilometer  13,  l^V  per  cent; 
Sabaneta  to  Caldas,  kilometer  24,  2  per  cent:  Caldas  to  Primavera.  kilometer  2S,  2J 
per  cent;  Primavera  to  Angelopolis,  3  per  cent;  .\ngelopolis  to  .Vmaga  (that  is.  down 
into  the  small  valley),  2^  per  cent. 

Medellin  has  an  elevation  of  1,480  meters  (4,854  feet)  above  sea  level.  The  highest 
point  on  the  Amaga  Railway,  at  La  Quiebra,  about  30  kilometers  (19  miles)  from 
Medellin.  has  an  elevation  of  1,900  meters  (6,232  feet). 

The  entire  valley  of  the  Porce  as  far  as  Caldas  is  under  intensive  cultivation,  sugar 
cane  being  the  principal  crop.     There  are  a  number  of  towns  and  villages,  the  most 


APPENDIXES.  399 

important  being  Envigado,  where  there  is  a  lai^e  cotton  factory,  and  f'aldas,  where 
there  is  a  porcelain  factory  where  glass  is  also  manufactured. 

As  the  train  comes  down  into  the  valley  from  the  station  of  La  Primavera,  the  for- 
mation changes,  a  diorite  and  a  so-called  green  "serpentine"  being  seen,  and  it  is 
here  that  indications  of  coal  deposits  are  observed. 

The  principal  freight  handled  on  this  line  is  coffee  from  the  interior  brought  down  to 
the  railway  on  pack  mules  and  pack  oxen.  The  local  passenger  traffic  is  very  heav-y, 
and  the  road  has  been  able  to  pay  for  new  work  out  of  proceeds. 

As  is  the  case  with  the  Antioquia  Railway  from  Puerto  Berrio  to  Medellin,  the 
country  i.s  very  mountainous  and  broken.  Tlie  average  cost  per  kilometer  (0.62  mile) 
has  been  around  $25,000.  and  some  kilometers  of  heavy  work  have  cost  the  country  as 
high  as  $90,000.  Maintenance  cost  is  also  high,  as  slides  are  frequent  and  entire 
hillsides  have  to  be  protected  with  riprap  and  retaining  walls  to  prevent  movement 
of  dirt  during  the  rainy  season.  The  actual  construction  may  be  considered  first-class 
work  throughout  for  a  narrow-gauge  line. 

The  significant  fact  noted  in  passing  over  this  line  is  the  heavy  curves  and  constant 
twisting  of  the  road.  As  a  trunk  line  for  heavy  traffic  (as  when  connection  is  made 
with  the  Pacific  coast),  this  line  would  have  to  be  rebuilt  and  straightened  out.  Curves 
are  so  short  and  the  grade  is  so  heavy  that,  at  the  present  time,  only  two  cars  of  10  tons 
each  can  be  handled  up  the  grade  by  one  locomotive  hauling  coal  from  the  Amaga 
fields.  Even  under  these  conditions,  the  road  is  to-day  a  paying  undertaking  for  the 
owners,  who  are  putting  all  revenue  into  the  new  construction  work,  as  previously 
noted. 

KINDS  OF  CLOTHING  NEEDED. 

While  one  is  on  the  Magdalena  River  light  clothing  is  worn,  such  as  Palm  Beach 
and  light  khaki,  and  this  may  be  continued  as  far  as  Medellin,  though  it  is  a  wise  pro- 
\'ision  to  have  out  and  ready,  upon  reaching  La  Quiebra  (between  Cisneros  and  San- 
tiago) a  light  woolen  coat  as  a  protection  against  a  chill  while  one  is  passing  over  the 
mountain  and  coming  in  to  Medellin  in  the  evening.  In  Medellin  either  Palm  Beach 
or  light  woolen  suits  may  be  worn,  the  climate  being  perpetual  spring,  with  no  sudden 
variations,  even  in  the  rainy  season. 

INTERIOR  TRAVEL. 

The  engineer  or  other  traveler  l^ound  farther  into  the  interior  of  Antioquia  outfits  at 
Medellin,  making  all  arrangements  for  saddle  and  pack  animals,  etc.  Good  mules 
may  be  hired,  with  competent  packers  and  guides.  Mules  are  to  be  preferred  al- 
ways, as  the  horses  are  small  and  not  good  and  can  not  stand  the  long,  hard  mountain 
trails.     Horses  are  also  not  so  sure-footed  as  the  mules. 

Pack  mules  for  baggage  can  be  hired  for  $1  per  day  with  equipment,  and  saddle 
mules  bring  $1.50  to  $2.50  per  day,  according  to  size,  gait,  etc.  Guides  are  hired  for 
the  trip  and  receive  $0.50  per  day  and  their  food.  When  an  outfit  is  hired  from  one 
town  to  another — say  from  Medellin  to  ManizaJes,  with  the  mules  to  be  returned  to 
Medellin — the  time  consumed  on  the  return  journey  is  calculated  and  paid  for,  the 
traveler  also  paying  for  the  railway  transportation  from  Caldas  into  Medellin  for 
animals  and  guide,  with  an  allowance  in  money  to  the  guide  for  expenses  of  food, 
fodder,  etc.,  for  the  return  trip. 

The  saddle  used  should  be  light  in  weight,  with  short  girths  to  fit  the  small  mules 
of  the  country.  Although  much  used  in  the  country  by  natives,  the  small  English- 
style  saddle  can  not  be  recommended  for  heavy  mountain  riding.  Something  along 
the  lines  of  the  American  McClellan  saddle  tree,  or  Whitman  tree,  is  to  be  recom- 
mended in  preference,  with  higher  cantle  and  horn  or  pommel.  The  small  iron  or 
metal  English  stirrup  is  also  dangerous  and  uncomfortable.  There  is  no  protection 
for  the  foot  from  heat  or  wet  or  from  brush  hurting  the  foot,  and  there  is  alwavs  present 
the  chance  of  getting  the  foot  caught  in  a  fall.  The  better  stirrup  is  a  wide  wooden 
one,  covered  with  a  lat^e  "tapadera"  of  heavy  leather  into  which  the  entire  foot  fits, 
with  the  exception  of  the  heel.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  "hang"  the  foot  in 
this  sort  of  stirrup,  and  the  feet  are  protected  from  wet,  mud,  heat  of  the  sun,  scraping 
against  banks  and  rocks  along  the  trail,  trees,  brush,  etc.;  and  the  feet  can  be  moved 
about  and  rested  while  one  is  in  the  saddle  on  a  long  ride. 

It  was  noted  by  the  writer  that  the  custom  of  the  country  is  to  use  a  piece  of  soft 
leather  inside  of  saddle  pads  under  the  saddles.  This  is  very  poor  practice  and 
should  not  be  followed  by  the  discriminating  traveler  in  this  hot  country,  since  the 
leather  does  not  act  as  an  absorbent  of  the  sweat  from  the  mule's  back  and  the  residt 
is  a  bad  blister  ftnd  a  sore-backed  animal  in  a  day  or  two.     A  good  woolen  blanket 


400     COLOMBIA:    A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

is  much  better,  folded  lengthwise  and  in  three;  this  should  be  washed  at  least  once 
a  week  during  trail  travel. 

Pack  saddles  are  called  "enjalmes,"  are  made  of  henequen  fiber  stuffed  with  gra^. 
They  are  too  small  and  are  poorly  made.  No  care  is  taken  of  saddle  blankets.  Pack 
mules  suffer  and  soon  become  a  mass  of  sores.  The  crupper  and  breast  straps  are 
too  often  only  a  piece  of  rope,  which  soon  cuts  the  skin  of  the  mule.  The  traveler 
should  select  good  mules  and  see  to  it  that  larger  pack  saddles  ("enjalmes")  are 
used  and  that  good  pads  are  provided.  By  watching  details  and  taking  a  little  care 
in  these  matters,  much  delay  will  be  avoided  while  one  is  out  on  the  trail. 

All  trunks  in  which  articles  of  clothing  or  samples,  etc.,  are  to  be  carried  should 
be  of  the  regulation  army  size  and  pattern;  that  is,  of  light  but  strong  fiber  lx)ard. 
well  reinforced  with  the  usual  metal  fittings  and  carrying  good  locks,  which  should 
be  kept  well  oiled.  The  size  is  approximately  30  by  16  by  14  inches,  and  two  trunks 
of  this  dimension  make  a  "car^  for  one  pack  mule.  Baggage  mules  can  not  be 
loaded  with  a  full  "carga, "  which  is  calculated  at  280  pounds,  S  double  stations  are 
to  be  made  each  day  on  the  trail;  that  is,  a  goo<l  day's  ride  of,  say,  40  miles.  Not 
more  than  200  pounds  should  be  put  on  each  baggage  mule  if  a  ^dle  gait  is  to  be 
maintained  all  day  over  these  trails.  During  the  rainy  season  waterproof  material 
should  be  used  to  wrap  all  baggage,  to  prevent  its  being  soaked  with  rain  while  one 
is  out  on  the  trail. 

The  outfit  should  include  a  folding  cot  with  attachable  mosquito  bar,  saddle  bags, 
and  a  waterproof  poncho.  The  best  poncho  is  a  rubber-covered,  strong  fabric  of 
large  size  which  will  cover  the  entire  body  as  far  down  as  the  stirrups,  as  well  as  the 
back  of  the  saddle,  etc.,  when  one  is  riaing.  The  usual  brand  of  pommel  slicker, 
so  common  in  the  western  part  of  the  United  States,  can  not  be  usea,  as  it  will  stick 
together  on  account  of  the  neat. 

A  full  supply  of  towels,  soap,  etc.,  as  well  as  sheets,  one  light  blanket,  a  small 
pillow,  and  a  mat  should  also  he  carried,  and  the  bed  outfit  should  be  put  up  in  a 
waterproof  canvas  sack  which  can  be  purchased  for  this  purpose. 

On  account  of  the  necessity  of  obtaining  food  and  fodder,  it  is  necessary  to  stop 
over  mght  at  the  numerous  ranches  a,nd  small  villages  along  the  trails.  This  is  a 
rather  unpleasant  feature,  as  the  food  is  badly  prepared  and  the  tiny  houses  are 
usually  insanitary. 

Dunng  the  ramy  seasons  of  the  year,  trails  are  often  practically  impassable  in 
many  places  on  account  of  mud  holes;  everything  becomes  wet  and  covered  with 
mud,  and  animals  soon  become  worn  out  on  the  rough  trails.  A  mountain  journey 
(and  everywhere  there  are  mountains)  during  the  wet  season  takes  nearly  twice  as 
long  as  during  the  dry  season  when  trails  are  in  better  shape. 

TRAILS. 

The  main  pack  trails  of  the  Antioquia  region  are  mentioned  below. 

The  Zaragosa  trail  leads  from  Medellin  to  Porcecito,  thence  through  "La  Clara" 
north  to  Segovia  and  then  to  Zaragosa  in  the  mining  country  on  the  Nechi  River. 
Another  main  trail,  also  to  the  north,  passes  through  the  important  towns  of  Gomez- 
plata  and  Amalfi,  following  the  right  bank  of  the  Porce  River  to  Zaragosa.  The 
country  becomes  tropical  farther  north  of  Medellin,  and  the  region  of  heavy  jungle, 
swamps,  and  heat  is  soon  reached. 

The  old  Caceres  traU  leaves  Medellin  for  San  Pedro,  leading  thence  to  Santa  Rosa 
and  north  to  Yanimal  toward  the  Cauca  River,  passing  through  Valdivia.  Caceres 
is  on  the  Cauca  River  and  is  a  placer-mining  center  of  ancient  fame. 

At  San  Pedro  another  important  mule  trail  branches  off  to  the  west  for  Sopetran, 
crossing  the  Cauca  River  at  Sucre  and  leading  to  the  town  of  Antioquia  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Cauca  River.  From  Antioquia  (town)  there  is  another  important  trail 
to  the  northwest,  leading  down  to  the  headwaters  of  the  Sucio  River,  the  largest 
tributary  of  the  Atrato  River.  This  trail  follows  the  river  down  to  Canasgordas, 
thence  to  Dabeiba,  and  on  down  the  river  as  far  as  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Sucio  River  at  the  town  of  Pavarandocito.  This  route  is  much  used  by  traders  and 
miners  going  into  the  placer-mining  country  along  the  Atrato.  This  entire  region 
is  very  tropical. 

To  the  south  there  are  a  number  of  trails  touching  large  towns.  The  most  important 
are  (1)  the  road  to  Manizales,  which  leaves  the  Amaga  Railway  at  Caldas  and  goes 
south  through  the  towns  of  Santa  Barbara,  Aguadas,  and  Salamina  to  Manizales — 
a  good  four-day  ride  in  bad  weather — and  (2)  another  old  trail,  formerly  much  used 
for  trading  with  the  interior  and  Bogota,  which  runs  south  from  Medellin  through 
La  Caja  to  Sonson  and  then  strikes  to  the  southeast  through  the  most  sparsely  popu- 
lated section  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia,  coming  out  at  the  Magdalena  River 
at  Honda  on  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway,  between  La  Dorada  and  Beltran. 


APPENDIXES.  401 

HEALTH  CONDITIONS. 

In  the  northerfc  part  of  the  Department  of  Antioquia  the  entire  country  is  very 
tropical,  the  region  of  Zaragoza  being  noted  for  its  malignant  malarial  fevers.  The 
people  of  Medellin  will  not  go  there  even  for  higher  wages  or  the  returns  from  gold 
mining.  The  same  is  true  of  the  region  west  of  the  Cauca  Valley  and  to  the  north 
along  the  Sucio  River  route. 

There  is  also  considerable  malaria  along  the  entire  Cauca  Valley  and  in  the  lower 
lands  between  Medellin  and  Manizales.  On  account  of  the  lack  of  sanitation  measures 
and  the  unhygienic  life  of  the  people  of  the  country  places,  every  precaution  should 
be  taken  against  infection;  the  water  should  not  be  taken  unless  one  has  seen  it 
boiled,  and  precautions  should  be  taken  against  tjT)hoid  and  dysentery,  two  diseases 
always  rife  in  this  region.  There  is  much  sickness  among  the  foreigners,  even  in 
Medellin,  and  out  of  hundreds  of  Europeans  and  Americans  met  by  the  uTiter,  only 
two  had  been  in  the  country  for  any  length  of  time  without  having  had  malaria  or 
other  sickness,  more  or  less  severe. 

MEDELLIN  TO  BOGOTA. 

DISTANCES  TO  BE  TRAVERSED. 

The  traveler  who  has  visited  Medellin  in  Antioquia  and  decides  to  go  to  Bogota 
must  return  over  the  Antioquia  Railway  to  the  Magdalena  River  at  Puerto  Berrio 
and  take  a  river  steamer  there  for  La  Dorada,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Lower 
River. 

The  rail  distance  from  Medellin  to  Puerto  Berrio  is  181  kilometers,  or  113  miles, 
plus  14.7  kilometers,  or  9  miles,  of  wagon  road  over  La  Quiebra  Mountain,  which 
separates  the  Porce  I)i\dsion  of  the  railway  from  the  Nus  Division. 

The  distance  by  river  from  Puerto  Berrio  (which  is  811^  kilometers  by  river  from 
Barranquilla)  to  La  Dorada  is  176  kilometers,  or  109  miles. 

From  La  Dorada  the  rail  distance  to  Beltran,  the  Upper  River  j)ort,  is  111  kilo- 
meters, or  69  miles,  over  the  Dorada  Extension  Railway. 

From  Beltran  to  Girardot,  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Upper  River  and  the  rail 
I)oint  for  Bogota,  the  distance  by  river  is  152.5  kilometers,  or  95  miles. 

From  Girardot  the  distance  by  rail  to  the  terminal  of  the  Girardot  Railway  at 
Facatativa  is  132  kilometers,  or  82  miles,  and  from  Facatativa  to  Bogota  over  the 
Sabana  Railway  the  distance  is  40  kilometers,  or  25  miles. 

The  total  distance  covered  in  the  trip  from  Medellin  to  Bogota  is,  therefore,  502 
miles. 

TIME  NECESSARY  FOR  JOURNEY. 

As  in  the  case  of  all  other  journeys  in  Colombia,  time  is  the  main  factor,  and  the 
trip  from  Medellin  to  Bogota  is  subject  to  many  conditions  and  circumstances,  all 
making  for  delay  en  route.  Chief  among  the  factors  of  delav  is  the  condition  of  the 
Magdalena  River  and  the  amount  of  water  in  the  river.  If  the  rainy  season  has  been 
on  for  at  least  one  month  prior  to  the  trip,  the  Upper  River  will  have  plenty  of  water 
for  the  small  steamers  and  the  Lower  River  will  be  in  good  condition  for  navigation 
by  the  larger  boats  plying  there.  All  these  conditions  affect  the  time  necessary  for 
the  trip  from  Medellin  to  Bogota.  In  the  following  statement  there  is  given  the  time 
consumed  in  each  part  of  the  trip  under  the  best  conditions  of  high  water  in  the 
river. 

1.  By  railway  from  Medellin  to  Puerto  Berrio.  Train  leaves  Medellin  at  6.30  a.  m. 
and  arrives  at  Santiago  at  about  10  a.  m.    Time,  3^  hours. 

2.  By  carriage  or  horseback  from  Santiago  to  Cisneros  over  La  Quiebra  wagon  road. 
Time,  labours. 

3.  By  railway  from  Cisneros  to  Puerto  Berrio,  Nus  Division.  Train  leaves  Cisneros 
at  1.15  p.  m.  aiid  arrives  at  Puerto  Berrio  at  about  6  p.  m.     Time,  4  J  hours. 

4.  By  steamer  from  Puerto  Berrio  to  La  Dorada  (high  water  in  river).  Steamer 
leaves  Puerto  Berrio  about  9  p.  m.  and  arrives  at  La  Dorada  at  daylight  of  the  next 
day.  Time,  34  hours.  During  high  water,  Lower  River  steamers  make  an  average 
speed,  while  actually  under  way  upstream,  of  8  to  10  kilometers  (5  to  6  miles)  per 
hour,  and  downstream  they  run  about  16  to  20  kilometers  (10  to  12  miles)  per  hour. 

5.  By  Dorada  Extension  Railway  from  La  Dorada  to  Beltran.  Delay  in  discharging 
freight  and  baggage  and  in  loading  baggage  on  train,  4  hours.  Train  leaves  La  Dorada 
at  about  11  and  arrives  at  Beltran  at  about  6  p.  m.    Time,  7  hours. 

37558°— 21 2G 


402     COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

6.  By  steamer  from  Beltran  to  Girardot  (high  water  in  river).  Steamer  leaves 
Beltran  at  about  9  p.  m.,  tying  up  to  bank  over  night  and  running  all  the  next  day 
to  reach  Girardot.    Time,  26  hours. 

7.  Delay  in  Girardot  during  the  night,  because  trains  can  not  run  on  the  Girardot 
Railway  d.urinfi:  the  hours  of  darkness,  12  hours. 

8.  By  Girardot  Railway  from  Girardot  to  Facatativa.  Train  leaves  Girardot  at 
8  a.  m.  and  arrives  at  Facatativa  at  5  p.  m.    Time,  9  hours. 

9.  By  Sabana  Railway  from  Facatativa  to  Bogota.  Train  leaves  Facatativa  at 
5.15  p.  m.  and  arrives  at  Bogota  at  6.30  p.  m.    Time,  l\  hours. 

It  thus  appears  that  the  total  time  for  the  trip  from  Medellin  to  Bogota  is  103  hours, 
or  four  and  one-half  days  (say  five  days  in  all),  and  this  is  under  the  very  best  con- 
ditions of  high  water  in  the  nver. 

On  the  river  there  is  the  ever-present  danger  of  the  boat  hitting  a  rock  or  mud  or 
sand  bank  and  being  stuck  there  indefinitely,  or  perhaps  damaged  beyond  repair, 
when  passengers  would  have  to  be  transferred  to  another  boat  sent  out  for  them. 

Landslides  on  the  Girardot  Railway  are  very  frequent  during  the  rainy  season, 
when  the  river  is  good,  and  they  are  a  frequent  source  of  delay  between  Girardot 
and  Bogota.  This  delay,  if  it  occurs  high  up  on  the  mountains  and  near  some  of  the 
small  towns  along  the  railway  which  serve  as  summer  places  for  the  wealthier  class 
of  people  from  Bogota,  would  not  be  so  bad  an  accident,  as  the  traveler  could  secure 
fair  accommodations  and  much  better  food  than  anywhere  along  the  river  route, 
except  at  Puerto  Berrio. 

SERVICES  OF  BAGGAGE  AGENCIES. 

There  is  no  adequate  system  of  checking  baggage  on  any  of  the  Colombian  railways. 
No  receipts  are  given  unless  there  is  excess  of  weight,  when  a  weight  receipt  is  given 
if  insisted  upon  and  there  is  time  at  the  station.  As  a  usual  thing  travelers  are 
encumbered  with  a  saddle  and  riding  outfit,  a  bed  outfit,  and  the  usual  outfit  of 
tropical  and  temperate  zone  clothing,  etc.,  and  the  best  plan  is  to  avail  oneself  of  the 
services  of  one  of  the  two  baggage  agencies  with  offices  in  Medellin,  such  as  the  Agencia 
Rendon.  This  agency  takes  charge  of  all  heavy  baggage,  buys  the  tickets  over  the 
railway,  transfers  baggage  from  hotel  to  station  the  day  before  leaving,  ships  the 
baggage  to  Santiago  where  another  agent  of  the  company  receives  it,  rechecks  it  and 
transfers  it  over  La  Quiebra  wagon  road  in  a  mule  cart,  and  ships  it  from  Cisneros  to 
Puerto  Berrio  where  it  is  loaded  on  the  river  steamer.  This  agency  also  provides  a 
conveyance  for  the  traveler  over  the  mountain  at  La  Quiebra— either  a  carriage  or 
a  saddle  animal — charging  a  fixed  rate  for  this  service  and  being  reliable.  The  ex- 
perienced traveler  will  utilize  this  service,  as  there  are  crowds  at  every  transfer  point, 
with  a  great  deal  of  confusion;  he  will  thus  avoid  much  loss  of  time,  as  well  as  un- 
necessary trouble,  and  will  insure  a  reasonable  degree  of  safety  for  the  baggage,  which 
could  not  be  guaranteed  in  any  other  way.  Otherwise,  the  passenger  would  have  to 
look  out  for  every  piece  of  baggage  himself  and,  in  the  confusion,  a  loss  of  one  or  more 
pieces  would  probably  result.  In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  there  is 
a  great  deal  of  pilferage  all  along  the  river  route,  and  the  loss  or  plundering  of  baggage 
is  a  common  occurrence.  Bags  and  trunks  should  be  stoutly  constructed  and  have 
the  very  best  sort  of  locks  on  them,  together  with  marks  of  identification  easily 
discernible  at  a  distance  from  all  sides. 

When  one  arrives  at  the  river  and  the  baggage  has  been  placed  on  board  the  boat 
by  the  MedelUn  agency,  which  has  a  resident  agent  to  meet  all  trains  and  steamers 
at  Puerto  Berrio,  one  usually  finds  on  board  an  express  steamer  another  sort  of  free- 
lance baggage  agent,  or  runner — men  who  follow  that  trade  on  the  river  and  who 
approach  the  traveler  soliciting  the  handling  of  his  baggage.  These  men  generally 
carry  cards  of  recommendation  from  other  people  and  can  be  relied  upon  to  a  certain 
extent.  They  go  right  through  with  the  boat  to  La  Dorada,  on  the  train  to  Beltran, 
and  up  the  Upper  River  to  Girardot,  delivering  the  baggage  on  board  the  train  for 
Bogota  at  Girardot.  Their  duty  also  includes  watching  the  heavy  baggage,  such  as 
trunks,  etc.,  which  are  not  put  in  the  stateroom  but  are  placed  on  the  lower  cargo 
deck. 

On  arrival  of  the  boat  at  La  Dorada,  these  men  engage,  for  their  own  account,  porters 
at  the  river  who  carry  the  baggage  up  the  bank  to  the  railway  station,  see  that  it  is 
weighed  and  checked,  pay  all  excess  charges,  etc.  They  engage  porters  to  load 
the  baggage  on  the  steamer  at  Beltran  and,  again,  to  take  it  ashore  and  through  the 
departmental  customhouse  at  Girardot  and  from  there  up  to  the  railway  station  for 
the  night,  checking  it  out  to  Bogota  in  the  morning  when  the  train  leaves. 

As  a  change  of  clothing  is  necessary  for  the  trip  up  into  the  cold  mountains  of  Bogota, 
any  piece  of  baggage  required  may  be  ordered  brought  to  the  hotel  in  Girardot  that 


APPENDIXES.  403 

night,  80  that  certain  clothing  can  be  removed  to  be  ready  for  the  colder  altitudes 
the  next  day. 

INTERDEPARTMENTAL  CUSTOMS  INSPECTION. 

Each  Department  (State)  of  Colombia  haa  a  State  monopoly  of  the  liquor,  tobacco, 
and  slaughter  taxes,  and  baggage  coming  into  one  Department  from  another  is  searched 
for  contraband  liquor  and  tobacco,  as  these  sources  supply  the  chief  revenue  of  the 
Departments.  It  is  rather  unpleasant  to  stand  for  an  hour  or  so  waiting  for  this  bag- 
gage inspection,  in  a  small,  hot  room,  when  one  is  in  a  hurry  to  get  ix)  a  hotel;  but, 
obviously,  this  can  not  be  avoided,  though  much  trouble  and  confusion  result. 

PRECAUTIONS  AGAINST  PILFERAGE. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  prevent  loss  of  contents  of  baggage  in  transit. 
The  ordinary  trunk  lock  of  cheap  standard  make  will  not  suffice,  as  it  is  sure  to  be  tam- 
pered with  en  route,  and,  if  not  opened,  the  lock  will  be  so  damaged  as  to  need  repairs. 
In  crowds  at  terminal  points,  hand  baggage  should  not  be  intrusted  to  boys  and  porters 
asking  to  carry  them.  The  best  method  is  to  contract  with  the  baggage  runner  who 
presents  recoinmendations.  He  knows  men  and  conditions  and  is  an  expert  at  watch- 
ing the  baggage  in  his  charge. 

Canvas  bags  containing  saddle,  bedding  outfit,  etc.,  should  be  provided  with  a  long 
hasp  lock  running  through  eyelets  at  the  opening,  and  a  good  practice  is  to  have 
these  bags  lined  with  a  flexible  wire  mesh  so  that  the  contents  can  not  be  got  at  by 
cutting  the  bag  open  with  a  knife. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  TRIP:  MEDELLIN  TO  PUERTO  BERRIO. 

As  the  train  leaves  Medellin  early  in  the  mornifig,  it  is  well  to  engage  a  reliable 
coachman  the  night  before  to  call  at  the  hotel  for  the  traveler  and  his  hand  baggage ; 
otherwise  a  carriage  could  not  be  obtained  at  that  hour  to  convey  one  to  the  station, 
which  is  located  at  some  distance  from  the  business  center  of  the  city.  As  there  is 
no  fixed  tariff  for  carriage  hire  in  Medellin  a  contract  should  be  made  with  the  driver, 
in  advance,  for  a  stipulated  price  for  this  service — -usually  about  1.50  Colombian  dol- 
lars for  one  or  two  passengers  and  hand  baggage. 

The  day  one  leaves  Medellin,  lunch  can  be  had  either  at  an  inn  on  the  top  of  La 
Quiebra  Mountain,  where  the  food  is  very  fair  and  the  rest  breaks  the  long  ride,  or 
at  Cisneros  before  the  train  leaves.  It  is  better  to  take  lunch  on  the  mountain  and 
so  avoid  the  crowds  always  present  at  Cisneros.  As  mentioned  on  page  395,  the  De- 
partment of  Antioquia,  which  owns  the  railway,  has  built  and  ojxjrates  at  Puerto 
Berrio  the  finest  modem  hotel  in  Colombia — the  Hotel  Magdalena.  Usually  the  train 
is  taken  in  Medellin  to  connect  with  express  steamer  at  Puerto  Berrio  the  same  day, 
but  there  is  an  even  chance  that  the  boat  will  be  a  day  or  two  late,  even  in  the  season 
of  high  water  in  the  river,  and  the  hotel  at  Puerto  Berrio  will  be  found  a  very  comfort- 
able place  to  stop  during  the  wait  for  the  steamer. 

MAGDALENA  RIVER,  PUERTO  BERRIO  TO  LA  DORADA. 

The  Magdalena  River  being  the  main  highway  of  traflic  in  Colombia  between  the 
coast  and  the  interior,  everything  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the  river,  varying 
with  the  season  of  the  year. 

The  dry  season  startis  in  November,  and  the  river  has  less  and  less  water  from  that 
time  until  navigation  is  almost  entirely  suspended  during  part  of  February,  all  of 
March  and  April,  and  part  of  May,  in  wliich  month  the  rains  again  start  in  the  high 
mountains  of  the  interior  and  the  river  begins  to  receive  additional  water  in  its 
upper  reaches. 

During  this  dry  season  travel  between  Medellin  and  Bogota  becomes  a  thing  of 
conjecture  and  is  liable  to  great  delays.  The  steamer  companies  make  every  effort 
to  keep  the  boats  running  during  the  drv  season,  but  when  one  is  once  on  board  a 
steamer  at  Puerto  Berrio  ne  must  depend  on  a  good  pilot,  a  light  cargo,  and  luck  to 
get  to  La  Dorada  in  less  than  a  week  or  10  days.  In  Alarch,  1919,  for  instance,  boats 
that  had  come  up  as  far  as  Puerto  Berrio  from  Barranquilla,  taking  15  days  to  make 
the  trip  that  far  tried  for  days,  without  success,  to  navigate  the  river  above  Puerto 
Berrio,  and  finally  had  to  return  downstream  to  that  point,  tie  up  there,  and  wait  for 
high  water. 

The  river  naturally  becomes  narrower  and  more  uneven  the  farther  up  one  goes, 
and  the  stretch  between  Puerto  Berrio  and  La  Dorada  is  bad,  being  filled  with  many 
rocky  benches,  sand  and  mud  bars,  snags,  rocks,  and  other  obstructions  to  navigation. 
After  one  passes  Barranca  Bermeja  below  Puerto  Berrio  the  foothills  of  the  Eastern 


404      COLOMBIA:   A   COMMERCIAL.  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

Range  of  the  Andes  are  seen  more  and  more,  while  at  La  Dorada,  on  a  clear  day,  the 
first  glimpse  of  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  Ruiz  and  Tolima  may  be  obtained  from  the 
river.  As  has  been  said,  the  river  trip  during  the  dry  eeaaon  is  a  matter  of  pilotage 
and  good  luck,  and  the  traveler  faces  a  possible  prospect  of  spending  a  few  days,  or 
even  a  week,  stuck  on  a  sand  bar  or  mud  bank  and  finally  being  forced  to  return  down- 
stream to  Puerto  Berrio,  where  there  are  good  hotel  accommodations,  in  a  dugout 
canoe  hired  for  the  purpose. 

This  account  will  deal  with  the  trip  under  conditions  of  high  water  in  the  river. 

There  is  an  agency  of  th^  Pineda- Lopez  Co.,  man^ng  agents  of  the  Colombian 
Railway  &  Navigation  Co.,  in  Medellin,  in  the  office  of  H.  B.  Maynham,  where  tickets 
are  purchased  and  room  reservations  made  for  the  Lower  and  Upper  River  journey 
on  steamers.  The  other  large  river  steamer  company,  the  Compaiifa  de  Traaportee 
Antioqueiia,  and  a  number  of  smaller  companies,  each  owning  one  or  two  boats,  are 
all  in  a  combination  or  pool  for  the  river  traffic,  and  one  agency  handles  all  the  pas- 
senger traffic,  including  ticket  selling,  reservations,  etc. — transportation  being  good 
on  all  boats  belonging  to  the  "pool." 

After  the  prolonged  dry  season  and  the  bad  condition  of  the  river,  travel  becomes 
very  heavy  up  and  down  the  river,  as  this  is  also  the  buying  season  oi  the  year  at  the 
end  of  the  coffee  harvests.  The  best  plan  is  not  to  trust  to  luck  but  to  go  to  the  ticket 
agency  at  least  one  week  in  advance,  if  that  is  possible,  and  insist  that  the  agency 
telegraph  (at  the  traveler's  expense)  for  a  room  reservation  on  the  boat  coming  up  the 
Lower  River  and  also  for  room  reservation  on  the  Upper  River,  with  a  definite  oesig- 
nation  of  each  steamer  to  be  taken.  Private  staterooms  on  these  river  boats  are  few  in 
number  and  are  necessary  for  comfort,  being  especially  desirable  if  a  good  deal  of 
valuable  baggage  is  carried  along. 

The  cost  is  20  per  cent  of  the  fare  for  a  room  shared  with  another  person  and  40  per 
cent  of  the  fare  for  a  room  occupied  alone.  As  the  rooms  are  very  small  it  is  well  to 
pay  the  extra  rate  and  have  a  room  alone. 

After  reservations  have  been  telegraphed  for,  the  traveler  should  insist  upon  his 
tickets  being  given  to  him  with  a  receipt  showing  the  number  of  the  room  assigned  to 
him  on  each  steamer.  Otherwise  someone  else  with  more  influence  may  get  the  room 
and  there  is  no  redress.  Very  often  rooms  thus  reserved  have  to  be  given  up  to  ladies 
traveling,  or  to  members  of  some  prominent  Colombian  family  for  whom  the  captain 
must  provide  accommodations,  or  to  members  of  the  clergy. 

When  a  dispute  occurs  over  reserved  accommodations  for  rooms  on  steamers,  not 
much  can  be  expected  from  argument  over  the  matter.  Very  often  when  passengers 
can  not  secure  rooms  the  engineers  or  pilots  who  have  their  quarters  on  the  upper 
deck  sell  their  rooms  by  private  arrangement  and  thereby  add  considerably  to  their 
incomes. 

There  are  two  classes  of  steamers  available  for  the  traveler — (1)  the  express  boats 
which  carry  the  mail  and  are  the  larger  and  more  modem,  having  electric-lighting  equip- 
ment and  ice-making  machine,  as  well  as  electric  fans  in  the  rooms  and  the  dining-room 
space  on  the  cabin  deck,  and  (2)  the  ordinary  boats  which  carry  heavy  or  ordinary 
freight  and  also  passengers.  Tne  express  boats  have  the  right  of  way  when  loading 
and  discharging  in  port,  are  supposed  to  be  faster,  and  are  most  used  by  the  traveling 
public.  As  there  is  only  one  express  boat  (or,  at  most,  two)  each  week  from  Barran- 
quilla  to  La  Dorada,  there  is  always  a  crowd  on  board;  this  condition  results  in  crowd- 
ing in  the  train  at  La  Dorada  and  makes  the  trip  to  Beltran  very  uncomfortable,  while 
the  same  may  be  said  of  the  night's  stay  at  Girardot  and  the  rail  journey  to  Bogota. 
At  Puerto  Berrio  it  might  be  the  better  plan  to  take  the  ordinary  steamer  during  the 
middle  of  the  week  and  be  less  crowded  and  more  comfortable,  on  the  whole,  since 
the  river  part  of  the  journey  to  Bogota  is  not  so  long  as  that  up  to  Puerto  Berrio  from 
the  coast.  The  electric  lights,  ice  machine,  and  fans  on  the  express  boats  are,  more 
often  than  not,  entirely  out  oi  service  anyway  (broken  down  and  out  of  repair  from 
inexperienced  and  unskilled  handling),  so  these  are  not  much  of  an  added  attraction 
to  the  experienced  river  traveler  in  Colombia. 

RAIL  JOURNEY  FROM  LA  DORADA  TO  BELTRAN. 

Between  La  Dorada  and  Beltran  there  are  a  series  of  rapids  up  which  steamers  can 
not  pass,  even  in  times  of  high  water,  without  great  danger  of  being  smashed  up  by 
the  swift  current  and  the  many  rocky  obstructions.  In  former  times  this  trip  was 
made  many  times  by  steamers  carrying  cargo  down  the  river,  but  several  bad  wrecks 
and  the  changes  in  the  river  for  the  worse  have  made  this  trip  impossible  in  more 
modem  times  even  for  small  launches. 

The  rail  journey  from  La  Dorada  to  Beltran  is  one  of  many  discomforts  and  real 
hardship.    The  boat  usually  reaches  the  river  bank  at  the  town  early  in  the  morning, 


APPENDIXES.  •  405 

and  its  arrival  means  confusion.  The  company  provides  only  one  passenger  train, 
with  one  first-class  day  coach,  no  matter  how  many  steamers  may  be  in  from  down 
river  and  no  matter  how  many  passengers  they  may  have  brought.  This  train  is 
switched  out  on  the  main  line  and  stands  there  in  the  sun  until  it  is  ready  to  start  for 
Beltran,  the  cars  becoming  like  ovens.  It  takes  the  porters  about  four  hours  to  dis- 
charge, carry  to  the  station,  weigh,  and  load  on  the  train  the  baggage  from  the  steamers. 
In  the  meantime  the  passenger  has  the  choice  of  remaining  on  the  hot  boat  or  of  stand- 
ing around  the  railway  buildings  or  of  going  into  the  struggle  that  is  taking  place  in 
the  baggage  room  of  the  station,  where  it  is  just  as  well  to  take  a  look  at  one's  things. 

The  average  traveler  in  Colombia  does  not  seem  to  use  a  trunk  when  on  a  long 
journey  (possibly  because  smaller  pieces  are  more  easily  packed  on  mules  over  the 
mountains)  and  always  carries  a  great  deal  of  hand  baggage  and  many  bundles,  pack- 
ages, etc.,  all  of  which  are  packed  into  the  day  coach  and  deposited  in  the  aisles. 
In  these  crowds,  to  leave  one's  seat  even  for  a  moment  is  to  lose  it,  and  that  means 
standing  all  the  rest  of  the  way.  This  is  true  also  of  the  rail  trip  from  Girardot  to 
Bogota. 

From  La  Dorada,  where  there  are  no  good  stopping  accommodations  (the  town 
being  very  small,  with  a  few  small  builaings  and  the  freight  sheds  of  the  railway 
company),  rooms  should  be  reserved  by  telegraph  in  the  only  good  hotel  in  Girardot, 
where  the  food  is  satisfactory  and  there  are  few  rooms,  always  crowded  to  capacity 
on  every  express-boat  day. 

The  main  town  along  the  line  of  the  Dorada  Railway  is  Honda,  where  the  stop  is 
made  for  lunch  en  route  to  Beltran.  In  case  of  delay  or  accident,  one  can  usually 
manage  to  get  to  Honda  and  stay  there,  as  there  is  no  other  place  along  the  line. 
Beltran  has  no  hotel  and  is  only  a  loading  place  for  freight.  Tne  principal  town  in 
that  region  is  Ambalema,  a  few  miles  farther  up  the  river,  where  travelers  could 
manage  to  stay  if  delayed  in  that  vicinity  for  a  few  days.  However,  Ambalema  has 
little  importance  commercially,  except  for  its  small  cigar-making  industry,  and  com- 
mercial travelers  do  not  stop  there.  When  the  Upper  River  is  low  and  there  are  no 
steamers  running,  passengers  for  Bogota  stay  at  Honda  and  from  there  make  arrange- 
ments for  saddle  and  pack  animals  to  take  them  up  over  the  old  Gamboa  Road  to 
Facatativa,  a  trail  trip  of  about  four  days,  the  time  varying  according  to  the  class  of 
animals  secured,  the  amount  of  baggage  carried,  and  the  personal  inclination  or  ability 
of  the  traveler  to  ride  hard  all  day.  There  are  said  to  be  some  good  inns  along  this 
road  (having  the  reputation,  in  fact,  of  being  the  best  in  the  country);  and,  as  this 
road  rapidly  leaves  the  low,  hot  country  and  climbs  into  the  hills  and  plateaus  where 
the  climate  is  cool  and  refreshing,  this  trip  is  not  so  bad  if  one  is  used  to  riding  and 
likes  scenery. 

MAGDALENA  KIVER.  BELTRAN  TO  GIRARDOT. 

Between  Beltran  and  Girardot  the  river  runs  between  high  banks  and  hills.  The 
river  itself  is  very  narrow  and  the  current  swift  and  of  uniform  volume;  in  appearance 
it  is  very  unlike  the  Lower  River,  where  the  stream  spreads  itself  out  into  shallows 
and  sand  bars  for  miles,  with  low  lands  along  either  bank  covered  with  a  dense  tropical 
jungle.  The  hills  of  the  Upper  River  have  little  heavy  timber,  but  during  the  rainy 
season  are  covered  with  light  growth.  The  river  has  eroded  and  cut  down  these 
rocky  hills  in  making  its  channel  into  a  series  of  rock  "benches,"  like  gigantic  steps, 
and  one  sees  many  "cathedral"  rocks  and  similar  formations. 

The  scenery  of  the  Upper  River  almost  compensates  for  the  general  discomfort  of 
the  trip — the  heat,  the  crowds,  the  lack  of  good  food,  and  the  general  insanitary 
condition  of  the  steamer.  The  Upper  River  is  not  so  hot  as  the  Lower  River;  the 
current  seems  to  make  a  draft  of  air  downstream,  and  there  is  some  relief  from  the 
dead,  stifling  atmosphere  of  the  Lower  River  and  the  monotony  of  flat  country  and 
everlasting  jungle. 

The  Upper  River  can  not  be  navigated  at  night  on  account  of  the  many  sharp  turns 
and  dangers  to  navigation,  pilots  not  being  able  to  watch  the  current  (which  they 
steer  by  always);  and,  as  the  train  from  La  Dorada  always  reaches  Beltran  just  at 
sundown  and  passengers  are  at  once  loaded  on  the  steamer  (there  being  no  other  place 
for  them  to  stop),  the  boat  usually  runs  upstream  for  a  few  miles  to  some  convenient 
woodpile  and  ties  up  there  for  the  night  at  the  bank.  As  a  result,  the  lights  of  the 
boat  attract  myriads  of  insects,  including  the  dreaded  mosquitoes,  ana  the  only 
refuge  is  in  one's  room  (if  one  has  been  fortunate  enough  to  secure  one)  and  under 
the  mosquito  netting  until  morning. 

On  the  Upper  River  the  steamers  are  all  of  the  same  type  as  on  the  Lower  River 
(see  p.  394),  only  very  much  smaller,  being  of  60  to  120  tons  burden,  whereas  the  larger 
of  the  Lower  River  steamers  carry  as  high  as  400  tons  of  freight  when  the  river  has 


406     COLOMBIA:' A   COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL   HANDBOOK. 

sufficient  water  to  allow  the  loading  of  full  cargoes.  On  account  of  the  much  swifter 
current  of  the  Upper  River,  steamers'  engines  are  "geared"  higher — that  is,  the 
wheels  revolve  faster  in  order  to  "take  "  the  current. 

If  no  room  is"  secured  by  the  traveler  and  he  has  to  sleep  out  on  deck,  the  cot  should 
■  never  be  placed  on  theafter  end  of  the  upper  deck,  or,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  anywhere  on 
the  upper  deck  or  "texas,"  for  the  very  good  reason  that  great  live  sparks  pour  out  of 
the  two  stacks  while  the  boat  is  in  motion  and  these  sparks  burn  great  holes  in  clothing 
and  bedding  and  very  often  injure  the  traveler.  Baggage  should  also  be  protected 
from  this  source  of  damage. 

Girardot  is  a  large  town  of  about  20,000  people,  built  on  the  high  banks  of  the  river. 
There  are  cement  steps  from  the  water  up  to  the  street  of  the  town,  but  these  are  out 
of  repair  and  rather  dangerous  at  night  for  one  not  knowing  the  way.  Steamers 
usually  tie  up  at  some  distance  below  the  main  part  of  town,  and  the  traveler,  after 
the  baggage  inspection  at  the  cumtomhouse,  can  either  ask  the  way  and  walk  up  to 
the  hotel  or  take  a  "jitney  "  autobus  which  makes  this  trip.  The  town  is  not  modem 
and  is  very  dusty  and  hot.  However,  the  only  good  hotel  has  excellent  food  (at  least 
it  seems  very  good  after  that  of  the  river  boats),  and  there  is  a  shower  bath — always 
a  great  relief  after  the  trip  on  the  Magdalena. 

RAIL  JOURNEY  FROM  GIRARDOT  TO  BOGOTA. 

The  night  is  spent  at  Girardot,  as  trains  can  not  be  run  at  night  on  the  railway  to 
Bogota  on  account  of  the  steep  grades  and  sharp  curves  of  the  line  and  the  danger  of 
landslides,  etc.  Clothing  should  be  arranged  so  that  a  woolen  coat  or  sweater,  or  a 
light  overcoat,  can  be  put  on  after  the  train  has  reached  La  Primavera — ^a  little  over 
halfway  up  the  mountains  to  Facatativa — ^at  an  elevation  of  about  7,000  feet  above 
sea  level,  where  the  chill  of  the  mountains  is  felt  after  the  heat  of  the  river  country. 
All  outfits  should  include  the  regular  woolen  suits  and  clothing  used  in  the  temperate 
zones  for  the  fall  months,  or  even  winter,  since  it  is  cold  and  damp  all  the  time  in 
Bogota  and  a  good  supply  of  woolen  underclothing  will  be  appreciated  there. 

The  Girardot  Railway  has  the  most  modern  and  best  equipment  of  any  line  in  the 
country.  Day  coaches  are  large  for  a  narrow-gauge  line  and  are  quite  comfortable. 
There  is  also  provided  a  buffet  car,  where  lunch  is  served  en  route.  The  country 
for  a  considerable  distance  out  from  Girardot  is  composed  of  low,  dry,  and  sterile  hills 
and  is  uninteresting,  hot,  and  dusty.  However,  as  the  line  begins  to  climb  into  the 
mountains  the  country  changes  and  becomes  very  beautiful.  These  mountains  are 
not  heavily  wooded  as  are  those  of  the  coast,  but  are  covered  with  short  green  grass, 
many  outcroppings  of  miilti-colored  rocks,  and  high,  broken  cliffs.  The  railway 
winds  and  twists  around  curves  with  ever-changing  scenery,  and  the  entire  trip  is 
one  to  be  remembered.  There  are  many  small  villages  in  these  mountains  and  along 
the  railway,  and  coffee  plantations  are  seen  along  the  right  of  way.  Vendors  of  all 
sorts  of  tropical  and  temperate-zone  fruits  meet  the  trains,  and  one  sees  apples  and 
peaches  for  the  first  time  since  leaving  the  north.  At  San  Javier  and  La  Primavera 
there  are  summer  colonies  of  people  from  Bogota  who  come  down  there  to  escape  the 
cold  of  the  high  plateau  during  all  times  of  the  year.  Palms  and  bananas  grow  at 
surprising  elevation  and  are  seen  everjTvhere  along  the  railway.  Some  cacao  is  also 
seen. 

A  surprise  awaits  the  traveler  at  Facatativa,  where  the  change  is  made  to  the  meter 
gauge  of  the  Sabana  Railway.  Within  5  kilometers  of  Facatativa  the  train  goes 
through  a  narrow  pass  in  the  hills  and  runs  out  on  the  great  plain  of  the  table-land  of 
Bogote.  Here  is  an  expanse  of  level  land,  the  atmosphere  is  cool  and  refreshing, 
and  one  can  see  for  miles  over  fields  of  wheat  and  excellent  cattle  pastures,  bordered 
with  tall  eucalyptus  trees  and  dotted  with  a  very  fine  breed  of  stock — a  striking 
contrast  to  the  dense,  hot  jungle  and  general  monotony  of  the  river  and  the  jumble 
of  mountains  on  the  way  up  from  Girardot  and  in  Antioquia.  Here  may  be  truly 
said  to  be  a  world  of  its  own,  unlike  anything  else  in  Colombia,  700  miles  from  the 
coast  of  the  (Caribbean  but  a  rich  coimtry  and  a  beautiful  one,  which  facts  explain 
the  habitation  of  this  region  by  the  ancient  Indians  and  its  later  colonization 
by  the  Spaniards. 

BOGOTA. 

The  capital  of  Colombia  has  a  modem  railway  station  of  imposing  proportions, 
which  would  be  creditable  to  any  city  of  its  size.  The  building  is  very  attractive 
and  is  equipped  with  a  modem  intercommunicating  telephone  system,  etc.  The 
city  itself  is  rather  a  disappointment.  The  streets  are  narrow  and  badly  paved, when 
paved  at  all,  and  the  entire  effect  is  like  that  of  all  old  Spanish  American  cities — a 
combination  of  the  old  and  the  new.    The  larger  buildings  are  of  two  and  even  three 


APPEKDIXES.  407 

stories,  built  of  red  brick  but  plastered  on  the  outside  with  stucco  and  tinted  in  various 
colors,  making  them  look  in  general  like  old  adobe  buildings.  There  are  a  number 
of  fairly  modem  edifices  constructed  of  concrete  (the  style  of  architecture  being  more 
French  than  American),  some  of  them  even  of  four  stories  but  having  no  elevators. 
There  is  one  long  avenue,  the  Calle  Real,  paved  with  asphalt  and  having  an  electrio 
street-car  line. 

Bogota  is  situated  on  the  edge  of  the  table-land  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  slope 
of  the  Eastern  Cordillera,  a  low  range  of  which  runs  just  to  the  east  of  .the  city  and 
forms  two  high  mountains  which  overlook  the  capital. 

Bogota  has  several  very  good  hotels,  small  but  clean  and  well  appointed,  where  the 
best  of  food  is  served.  The  unfortunate  feature  of  the  hotels  in  Bogota  is  the  inade- 
quate bath  arrangements.  It  is  cold  in  Bogota  and  a  hot  bath  is  a  great  luxury  and 
hard  to  procure,  the  bath  usually  being  located  in  some  out-of-the-way,  dark,  and 
drafty  passageway  in  the  back  oi  the  building.  After  staying  in  Santa  Marta,  Bar- 
ranquilla,  Cartagena,  and  Medellin,  the  traveler  appreciates  Bogota.  The  people 
are  better  tr3,ined  to  service,  more  cleanly,  and  more  accustomed  to  the  better  class 
of  traveling  public  and  its  needs. 

In  Bogota  one  can  get  good  bread,  cakes  and  pastry,  excellent  ham,  bacon,  and 
cheese,  these  local  industries  having  been  started  by  Europeans  who  have  settled  there. 

Rates  vary,  but,  in  general,  first-class  accommodations  in  Bogota  in  three  or  four 
of  the  best  hotels  cost  4.50  Colombian  dollars  per  day  for  room  with  sitting  room,  with 
meals  included.  It  may  be  noted  that  in  Medellm  hotel  rates  are  about  3  dollars 
per  day  for  a  single  room  with  meals,  and  the  accommodations  are  much  better  than 
those  of  the  coast  (at  either  Cartagena  or  Barranquilla)  for  which  4  and  4.50  dollars 
per  day  are  charged . 

TRAVEL  OUTFITS. 

Medellin  is  at  an  elevation  of  5,000  feet  above  sea  level,  with  an  equable  perpetual- 
spring  climate.  Light  underclothing  is  worn  with  light  woolen  suits,  etc.  On  leav- 
ing Medellin  it  is  a  good  plan  to  wear  Palm  Beach  or  ducks,  carrying  a  light  woolen 
coat  for  the  trip  over  the  mountain,  to  avoid  a  chill.  A  waterproof  of  some  kind 
should  also  be  carried,  ready  to  slip  on,  as  it  rains  very  often  on  La  Quiebra  Pass. 
After  one  passes  Cisneros  the  climate  becomes  more  tropical  as  the  river  is  approached, 
and  on  the  entire  river  trip  nothing  but  Palm  Beach  or  white  duck  or  khaki  is  worn. 
Khaki  or  olive-drab  Palm  Beach  seems  to  be  the  best  cloth  on  such  a  joximey.  A 
good  Panama  hat  purchased  in  the  coimtry  adds  much  to  one's  comfort. 

Besides  the  tropical  and  heavier  clothing,  the  usual  river  bed  outfit  is  carried — 
that  is,  a  mat,  two  sheets,  a  pillow,  a  mosquito  net,  towels  for  both  face  and  bath,  soap, 
and  the  usual  assortment  of  toilet  articles,  etc.  The  steamer  staterooms  contain 
nothing  more  than  a  folding  canvas  cot  and  washbasin.  Individual  towels,  soap, 
etc.,  should  always  be  used,  and  care  should  be  taken  as  to  the  laimdering. 

MAGDALENA  RIVER  TO  MANIZALES. 

START  FROM  MARIQUITA. 

The  traveler  desiring  to  reach  Manizales,  either  from  Barranquilla  or  Bogota,  leaves 
the  Dorada  Extension  Railway  at  the  station  of  Mariquita — 51  kilometers  from  La 
Dorada,  where  the  river  steamer  is  left  if  one  is  coming  up  the  river,  and  60  kilometers 
from  Beltran,  the  point  of  debarkation  if  one  is  coming  down  from  Bogota. 

At  Mariquita  is  the  beginning  of  the  mountain  trail  for  Manizales,  and  here  mules 
must  be  secured  for  the  journey  over  the  famous  "'pdramo"  of  Ruiz,  "Ruiz"  being 
the  name  of  the  high,  snow-capped  mountain  seen  on  clear  days  from  La  Dorada. 
Mariquita  is  a  small  town  built  around  the  railway  shops  of  the  Dorada  Extension 
Railway,  which  are  located  at  this  point,  as  is  also  the  end  of  the  Cableway  Branch 
of  this  railway,  which  is  being  constructed  toward  Manizales  by  the  English  com- 
pany (seep.  263). 

At  Mariquita  there  is  no  hotel  worthy  of  the  name,  and  the  wise  traveler  will  do 
well  to  carry  a  folding  camp  cot,  bedding,  and  all  other  necessities  of  travel.  It  is 
also  well  to  telegraph  in  advance  for  mules,  from  either  Barranquilla  or  Bogota,  since 
the  animals  are  usually  kept  in  pastures  at  some  distance  and  it  takes  a  day  or  more 
to  have  them  brought  down  to  Mariquita.  It  is  also  a  very  good  plan  to  obtain  the 
services,  of  some  fnend  in  Colombia  who  can  secure  better  saddle  animals  than  the 
ones  usually  provided  for  general  hire. 

It  is  best  to  start  very  early  in  the  morning  on  account  of  the  terrific  heat  encoun- 
tered in  the  foothills  as  one  is  leaving  Mariquita.  The  going  is  rather  rough,  though 
the  trail  is  wide  and  has  been  worked  to  some  extent  to  keep  it  in  good  condition. 


408     COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

Mules  should  be  carefully  inspected  and  all  worn  shoes  replaced  before  one  starts 
out,  even  though  another  day  may  be  lost  in  this  work.  This  is  very  necessary, 
because  much  rough  ground  and  broken  rock  is  found  in  many  places  and  a  lame 
mule  may  mean  a  night  spent  in  the  open  with  no  food. 

EQUIPMENT. 

The  equipment  should  consist  of  small  trunks  for  mule  transport,  as  the  usual  large 
trunk  can  not  be  carried  on  a  mule  pack,  for  which  two  packages  must  be  made,  one 
for  each  side.  Also,  more  than  150  pounds  of  baggage  can  not  be  packed  on  one 
animal  if  saddle  time  is  to  be  made  over  the  trail.  All  contents  of  baggage  must  be 
securely  packed  to  prevent  movement. 

The  saddle  should  be  a  good  light  one  (such  as  the  McClellan,  Whitman,  or  English 
Army  styles),  carry  very  short  girths,  and  be  fitted  with  crupper.  The  best  type  of 
stirrup  is  the  full-hooded,  broad  wooden  stirrup.  This  keeps  the  sun  from  burning 
the  foot  while  one  is  mounted  and  also  keeps  the  boot  dry  in  the  mountain  rains. 
This  type  of  stirrup  is  also  the  safest,  as  the  foot  can  not  be  caught  in  a  fall. 

An  item  of  equipment  which  is  indispensable  is  a  good  waterproof  "poncho"  large 
enough  to  cover  the  body  and  the  saddle  when  one  is  mounted,  as  cold  rains  will  be 
encountered  up  on  the  "pdramo."  The  lightest  possible  clothing  is  worn  until 
Frutillo  is  reached,  about  halfway  to  Manizales;  here  the  clothing  must  be  changed 
for  good  woolens.  The  bed  equipment  should  include  at  least  two  heavy  woolen 
blankets. 

Some  articles  of  food  should  also  be  carried  in  case  of  an  emergency  stop  on  the 
mountain. 

A  great  deal  of  trouble  will  be  avoided  if  a  man  is  obtained  as  "peon  "  (guide,  mule 
driver)  who  knows  the  road  well  and  where  to  stop  and  how  to  divide  the  day's  travel 
so  that  advantage  can  be  taken  of  the  best  stopping  places. 

THE  TRAIL. 

The  trail  is  wide,  well  worked,  and  much  traveled,  especially  beyond  the  cable 
station  at  Frutillo.  The  entire  ride  is  up  from  an  elevation  of  less  than  3,000  feet 
at  Mariquita  to  more  than  14,000  feet  on  the  "pdramo,"  whence  the  descent  is  made 
toward  Manizales,  dropping  down  to  about  7,000  feet  above  sea  level.  Between 
Fresno  and  Frutillo  the  Guali  River  is  crossed,  an  hour  and  a  half  being  required  to 
make  the  climb  on  the  western  side  toward  Frutillo.  The  Guali  River  is  a  narrow, 
swift  mountain  stream  here  and  passes  down  an  enormous  canyon  over  which  the 
cableway  passes  at  a  height  of  more  than  3,000  feet  above  the  river.  The  scenery 
here  is  most  wonderful  and  quite  worth  the  discomforts  of  the  trip  to  see.  The  river 
plunges  into  a  great  pocket,  almost  a  cave,  just  below  the  bridge  across  which  one 
rides,  and  the  mountains  are  wooded  and  green,  with  many  great  palms  and  with 
tiny  ranchos  here  and  there.  All  through  this  district  some  coffee  is  grown,  but  in  a 
rather  desultory  manner. 

It  is  best  to  stop  for  the  night  at  Fresno.  The  ride  can  not  be  made  through  to 
Frutillo  unless  the  very  best  animals  can  be  had,  as  well  as  very  light  packs  for  the 
baggage;  such  a  day's  ride  would  be  very  hard  and  not  much  vigor  would  be  left  in 
the  mules  for  the  hard  pull  over  the  "pdramo"  after  leaving  Frutillo.  From  Fresno 
it  is  a  short  ride,  of  about  five  hours  only,  into  Frutillo,  where  one  can  stop  at  the 
cable  station.  The  next  day  is  the  hard  one  over  the  pass.  This  ride  takes  at  least 
10  hours  with  pack  mules  loaded  with  baggage,  and  by  riding  hard  all  day  one  can 
reach  Manizales  by  night  if  the  mules  are  good  and  the  descent  is  accomplished  before 
dark.  After  reaching  Sancudo,  down  off  the  "pdramo,"  the  road  is  very  ^ood  into 
Manizales.  A  stop  for  the  night  can  be  made  at  Sancudo,  where  there  is  a  good 
house — in  fact,  the  best  on  the  trail.  F^om  there  it  takes  only  two  hours  of  smart 
riding  to  reach  Manizales. 

The  people  of  the  coimtry  are  unfamiliar  with  modern  sanitary  measures,  and  every 
precaution  should  be  taken.  The  discriminating  traveler  will  carry  his  own  bedding, 
knives,  forks,  etc. 

Care  should  be  taken,  after  leaving  Frutillo,  not  to  try  to  push  ahead  of  slowly 
moving  ox  pack  trains  when  one  is  on  a  bad  piece  of  the  trail.  Traffic  is  very  heavy 
between  Manizales  and  Frutillo  (goods  going  out  to  Manizales  and  coffee  coming  in 
to  the  cableway  from  Manizales  and  way  points),  and  these  lumbering  oxen  are 
dangerous  to  the  rider  and  to  mules  loaded  with  baggage  when  met  on  nigh  points 
of  the  trail  where  there  is  steep  ground  on  one  or  both  sides. 

Many  stretches  of  this  trail  luive  been  corduroyed  with  rough  timber  in  order  to 
provide  a  firm  footing  for  mules  and  oxen  during  the  two  rainy  seasons  when  the 
trail  becomes  a  series  of  mud  holes  into  which  the  animals  plunge  up  to  the  belly. 


APPENDIXE&. 


409 


This  entire  region  is  all  volcanic  in  formation,  and  the  top  soil  is  a  loose  clay  mixed 
with  ash  and  pumice  which  soon  becomes  a  sticky  licjuid  mud  when  it  is  raining. 

The  distance  in  an  air  line  to  Manizales  from  Mariquita  is  only  75  kilometers  (the 
distance  to  Frutillo  being,  by  the  cableway,  only  37  lalometers),  but  by  the  trail  the 
distance  is  calculated  at  25^  leagues,  or  approximately  102  miles.  A  caddie  mule 
in  the  mountains  is  supposed  to  make  an  average  of  1  league,  or  4  miles,  per  hour. 

COST  OF  TKIP. 

A  good  saddle  mule  can  be  hired  at  15  Colombian  dollars  for  the  round  trip,  and  pack 
mules  equipped  with  pack-saddles  (sobre-enjalmes)  at  12  dollars  each.  The  "peon" 
earns  1  dollar  per  day,  being  paid  for  the  return  trip  at  the  rate  of  three  days  if  the 
traveler  does  not  return  via  Mariquita.  When  more  than  three  mules  are  used,  it  is 
customary  to  take  along  a  boy  to  help  the  "peon";  this  boy  receives  3  to  4  dollars 
for  the  round  trip.  All  mule  feed  and  the  men's  food  and  lodging  are  paid  for  by  the 
traveler.  With  four  mules  and  two  people,  not  including  the  traveler,  this  expense 
amounts  to  approximately  5  dollars  each  way,  and  the  expense  for  men  and  animals 
on  the  return  journey  back  to  Mariquita  is  paid  for. 

A  good  man  in  Alariquita  is  Sr.  Elias  Rosas,  who  can  be  reached  by  telegraph. 
This  man  owns  six  good  animals  and  goes  out  in  person  with  travelers  for  Manizales, 
having  worked  on  this  road  for  10  years  and  being  well  known  to  the  better  class  of 
people  making  this  journey — principally  foreigners,  English  and  American. 

Good  animals  can  be  secured  also  by  telegraphing  to  Manizales  and  having  mules 
sent  down  from  there.  Agents  of  business  houses  on  the  coast  take  care  of  this  sort 
of  work  for  their  people. 

MANIZALES  TO  CALL 

DISTANCES  COVERED  AND  TIME  CONSUMED. 

Following  is  a  table  of  distances  and  time  consumed  in  actual  travel  on  the  trip 
from  Manizales,  the  capital  of  the  Department  of  Caldas,  to  Cali,  the  capital  of  £1 
VaUe: 


Section  of  trip. 

Distance. 

-Means  of  travel. 

Actual 

Leagues. 

^lilcs. 

time. 

Manizales  to  Pereira 

9 
6 
9 

4.5 
19 

36 
24 
36 

Saddle 

do 

do 

Hours. 

Peroira  to  Cartago 

4A 

Cartago  to  Zarzal 

7^ 

Zarzal  to  Buga  la  Grande 

15   do 

76     Automobile... 

16  Railwav 

3 

Buga  to  Palmira 

5 

Palmira  to  Cali 

1 

' 

MANIZALES  TO  PEREIRA. 

Manizales  is  located  in  the  mountains  on  the  western  side  of  the  Central  Range  of 
the  Andes,  at  an  elevation  of  7,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  climate  is  cool  and 
delightful  all  of  the  year. 

The  well-traveled  trail  from  Manizales  to  Pereira,  a  distance  of  36  miles,  is  a  well- 
worked  and  repaired  mountain  trail,  having  no  very  steep  lulls  or  grades  and  descend- 
ing gradually  to  the  valley  at  Pereira.  Very  good  saddle  time  can  be  made  over  this 
trail  when  too  heavy  baggage  is  not  canied  on  pack  mules. 

About  halfway  down  the  mountains  the  type  of  country  changes  very  considerably. 
The  entire  formation  is  very  evidently  volcanic,  and  here  and  there  tiny  valleys  are 
seen  containing  a  few  acres  of  good  land  on  which  sugar  cane  is  grown.  The  climate  is 
semitropical  and  becomes  steadily  warmer  as  the  descent  continues. 

Small  groves  of  bananas  are  seen  in  increasing  numbers,  and  there  are  great  groves 
of  the  gigantic  bamboo,  the  material  mc^t  used  for  construction  of  houses  and  fences 
in  this  region  by  the  natives;  even  the  roofs  of  the  houses  are  of  this  wood,  while  large 
buildings  are  erected  in  frame  of  bamboo  and  then  plastered  with  mud  and  white- 
washed on  the  outside. 

This  same  description  will  apply  to  the  entire  route  as  far  as  Buga  la  Grande. 

Pereira  is  a  small  town  located  on  a  low  mesa  between  two  small  rivers.  In  the  sur- 
rounding country  there  are  many  large  Para-grass  cattle  pastures,  well  cared  for;  there 
is  also  considerahle  good  agricultural  land,  though  the  principal  industry  is  the 


410     COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

raising  of  cattle.  The  town  itself  presents  a  rather  unattractive  appearance,  as  all 
bamboo  and  frame  houses  are  daubed  with  mud  stucco  and  look  like  the  usual  type 
of  mud  adobe  house  seen  all  over  the  country.  There  are  no  good  stores;  commerce 
is  with  Manizales  as  the  wholesaling  center,  and  transportation  of  goods  is  by  means 
of  pack  mules  and  pack  oxen. 

In  the  hills  between  Manizales  and  Pereira  lies  the  principal  coffee-growing  region 
of  the  Department  of  Caldas,  and  small  groves  of  cof?ee  trees,  with  their  larger  shade 
trees,  are  seen  everywhere,  though  there  do  not  appear  to  be  many  large  plantations, 
property  being  held  in  small  lots  in  this  hilly  country  and  there  seldom  being  more 
than  a  few  thousand  trees  to  each  individual  owner. 

The  country  around  Pereira  may  be  generally  described  as  rolling  land,  with  here 
and  there  a  steep  and  broken  range  of  hills — offshoots  of  the  Central  Range  of  the 
Andes.  There  are  two  small  rivers,  the  larger  of  which  is  La  Vieja,  up  which  the  new 
railway  from  Puerto  Caldas  on  the  Cauca  River  is  now  being  built  toward  Manizales 
by  the  departmental  government. 

When  about  halfway  down  the  range  from  Manizales,  one  is  struck  by  the  great 
change  in  the  type  of  native  people  seen  along  the  road.  Negroes  are  seen  in  increas- 
ing numbers,  while  the  others  are  very  dark-skinned  and  show  every  evidence  of  the 
semitropical  climate,  including  symptoms  of  acute  malaria.  The  coffee  regions 
under  6,000  feet  are  noted  among  the  natives  for  being  very  unheal thful  places,  and 
the  people  living  there  show  the  effects  very  markedly. 

As  in  Guatemala;  the  heavy  impregnation  of  volcanic  ash  in  the  soil  of  this  r^on 
makes  it  very  good  for  coffee  production. 

Between  Manizales  and  Pereira  one  crosses  two  mountain  streams  called  Campo 
Alegre  and  Chinchina,  both  very  swift  and  furnishing  abundant  water  power  tor 
generating  electricity. 

PEREIRA  TO  CARTAGO. 

After  one  leaves  Pereira  the  character  of  the  country  changes.  The  land  becomes 
more  level  in  surface  character,  but  the  soil  is  very  thin  and  there  are  many  outcrop- 
pings  of  a  white,  chalky  substance  which  shows  in  many  layers  and  is  undoubtedly 
volcanic  in  origin.  There  are  also  banks  of  broken  shale  and  many  gravel  banks, 
indicating  an  old  alluvial  erosion.  Just  before  one  reaches  Cartago  a  range  of  dry 
and  stony  hills  is  crossed  along  the  north  bank  of  the  River  La  Vieja,  which  passes  by 
Cartago  and  flows  into  the  Cauca  River  a  few  miles  from  the  city. 

Fewer  people  are  seen  in  this  region,  and  there  is  little  or  no  cultivation  except  along 
the  small  rivers — and  that  in  very  small  patches. 

The  town  of  Cartago  is  situated  in  the  midst  of  this  sort  of  country.  There  is  little 
agriculture  in  its  vicinity,  and  it  can  not  be  called  a  thriving  place.  The  only  thing 
that  gives  it  life,  economically,  is  the  Cauca  River  traffic,  the  town  being  formerly  a 
sort  of  river  port  for  the  distribution  into  the  interior  of  goods  imported  through  Buena- 
ventiuu.  However,  Cartago  is  not  situated  on  the  river,  but  is  about  2  miles  from  it, 
and  the  river  port  will  be  Puerto  Caldas,  where  the  Caldas  Railway  leaves  the  Cauca 
River  for  Pereira  and  Manizales.  As  this  new  railway  does  not  touch  Cartago  but 
passes  some  miles  to  the  northwest  of  the  town,  Cartago  will  be  left  without  means  of 
support  in  the  near  future.  Of  course,  the  trail  travel  between  Manizales  and  Buga 
la  Grande  will  remain  during  the  seasons  of  the  year  when  the  river  is  too  dry  for 
steamer  navigation,  but  this  traffic  will  be  small  because  the  low-water  stages  of  the 
river  occur  at  times  after  the  coffee  harvest  when  traffic  is  very  light. 

Cartago  is  an  old  Spanish  town.  It  has  few  good  buildings,  and  commercial  life 
there  is  at  a  low  ebb.  There  is  not  even  an  agency  for  any  national  or  foreign  bank. 
Commercially  Cartago  is  tributary  to  Manizales  and,  to  some  extent,  to  Cali,  from 
which  latter  town  goods  are  shipped  down  the  Cauca  River. 

CARTAGO  TO  BUGA  LA  GRANDE. 

From  Cartago  to  Buga  la  Grande  (which  is  the  present  end  of  the  new  wagon  road 
from  Palmira),  a  distance  of  about  14  leagues,  or  56  miles,  the  country  is  very  poor. 
There  is  a  series  of  low  hills  to  the  east  which  continue  in  a  broken  line  on  the  east 
side  of  the  road  all  the  way  to  Buga.  The  formation  is  chalk,  with  a  very  light  top 
soil — a  heavy  "adobe"  clay,  which,  during  the  two  rainy  seasons,  becomes  a  sticky 
mass  of  mud,  making  mule  traffic  almost  impossible.  Several  small  streams  are 
crossed,  but  these,  during  July,  August,  and  September  and  also  from  December  to 
March,  are  dry,  and  stock  has  to  be  held  along  the  Cauca  River  on  account  of  the  lack 
of  water.   Little  effort  has  been  made  to  bore  wells  for  water.   There  are  few  ranches. 


APPENDIXES.  411 

and  they  are  poor,  uninviting  places  at  the  best.     The  cattle,  mules,  and  other  an- 
imals seen  are  small  and  of  poor  breed. 

In  the  early  part  of  September  the  ride  has  to  be  made  from  Cartage  through  to 
Buga  la  Grande,  a  distance  of  9  leagues,  or  at  least  7^  hours  in  the  sadole,  as  there  is 
no  water  between  these  places  for  man  or  beast. 

RIDE  BY  AUTOMOBILE  TO  PALMIRA. 

Throughout  the  region  from  Cartago  to  Buga,  the  Cauca  Valley  has  the  appearance 
of  being  narrow,  as  the  high  hills  on  the  western  side  of  the  river  are  very  plainly  seen, 
and  the  good  level,  fertile  lands  of  the  river  must  be  limited  in  extent  if  one  may 
judge  from  the  character  of  the  land  on  the  eastern  side,  over  which  the  trail  passes. 
However,  after  one  leaves  Buga  and  is  passing  over  the  automobile  road  toward  Pal- 
mira, the  valley  opens  out  and  large  areas  of  level  and  apparently  very  good  soil  are 
seen.  The  best  lands  are  undoubtedly  those  around  Palmira  and  the  sugar  lands  of 
Manuelita. 

After  one  leaves  the  small  town  of  Zarzal,  the  River  La  Paila  is  crossed.  This  is  a 
stream  of  fairly  good  size  and  was  not  dry  in  September  (when  the  writer  passed  it), 
carrying  plenty  of  water,  though  good  lands  are  not  seen  along  its  banks  except  in  very- 
email  patches.  The  distance  from  Zarzal  to  the  River  La  Paiia  is  3  leagues,  or  12  miles. 
All  small  cattle  pastures  of  Para  and  natural  grasses  were  very  dry  on  account  of  the 
intense  heat  ana  lack  of  rain,  and  all  cattle  had  been  driven  down  to  the  pasttu-es 
along  the  Cauca  Valley  proper. 

The  new  wagon  road  begins  at  Palmira  and  is  planned  to  run  through  to  Cartago. 
New  construction  work  is  now  going  on  as  far  as  the  River  La  Paila  beyond  Buga  la 
Grande.     Automobiles  run  out  of  Buga  as  far  as  a  ranch  called  "Ovedo' '  to  pick  up 

{)assengers  coming  in  from  Cartago  by  trail  and  horseback.  As  the  country  is  quite 
evel,  this  road  consists  of  a  dirt  fill,  put  in  by  means  of  wheelbarrows,  then  rolled  with 
a  steam  roller,  and  then  given  a  light  surface  of  gravel,  which  is  also  rolled  in. 

Small  culverts  for  drainage  are  being  made  of  brick  laid  in  cement,  isith  cement 
(concrete)  foundations,  and  the  numerous  small  bridges  are  being  built  with  concrete 
buttresses  and  arched  with  a  very  good  quality  of  red  brick,  which  is  made  right  along 
the  road  out  of  the  native  clay.  The  crowned  surface  is  only  20  feet  in  width.  This 
road  would  not  stand  heavy  rains  or  washouts  nor  heavy  motor-truck  traffic  for  very 
long,  and  it  will  need  constant  attention  and  repairs  to  keep  it  in  condition  even  for  the 
light  traffic  of  the  region.  The  distance  from  Buga  to  Palmira  is  about  76  miles,  and 
the  run  is  made  by  automobile  in  5  hours. 

In  addition  to  the  service  of  the  Empresa  de  Automoviles  de  Palmira,  there  are  sev- 
eral independent  drivers  8er\dng  this  road  for  casual  traffic,  and  it  is  estimated  that 
there  are  35  to  40  cars  engaged  in  this  service  between  Palmira  and  Buga  la  Grande. 

Between  Buga  la  Grande,  which  is  a  very  small  place,  andPalmira  there  are  several 
large  towns,  chief  among  these  being  Buga,  Tulua,  and  Concordia,  all  tributary  to  Cali 
(and  to  some  extent  to  Manizales). 

In  Buga  there  are  at  the  present  time  two  American  tractors  in  actual  service  and 
giving  very  good  results  in  plowing  lands  for  rice  cultivation.  Gasoline  coeta  about 
$11  per  case  of  10  gallons  delivered  at  Buga  in  wholesale  lots. 

PACIFIC  RAILWAY,  PALMIRA  TO  CAU. 

On  the  Pacific  railway  there  are  two  trains  out  of  Palmira  for  Cali  daily,  one  at  7  a.  m. 
and  the  other  at  4  p.  m. ,  the  run  taking  only  one  hour,  or  at  most  an  hour  and  a  quarter. 

EQUIPMENT  FOR  TRIP. 

The  equipment  for  the  trip  from  Manizales  to  Cali  should  consist  of  the  usual  trail 
outfit  of  saddle,  poncho  (waterproof),  folding  camp  cot,  air  mattress,  mosquito  bar, 
toilet  articles,  towels,  and  bedding — these  last  including  sheets  and  one  pillow,  etc., 
as  sheets  and  towels  of  the  local  hotels  should  not  be  used  under  any  circumstance. 
All  baggage,  such  as  trunks,  etc.,  should  be  wrapped  in  a  good  waterproof  tarpaulin,  as 
this  protects  it  from  damage  en  route  and  from  the  rain  (in  case  any  falls  while  one  is  on 
the  road) .  A  good  way  to  carry  the  bed  outfit  is  in  a  large  canvas  sack,  which  can  easily 
be  locked.  All  baggage  should  be  kept  locked,  and  nothing  should  be  allowed  to  re- 
main laying  around.  The  water  should  be  xised  only  in  one's  own  drinking  cups,  and 
then  lime  juice  should  be  added.  Soda  water  can  be  purchased  at  almost  every  small 
town  along  the  way.  Chickens  and  eggs  are  plentiful,  and  one  does  not  suffer  from 
lack  of  food. 

Soon  after  the  departure  from  Manizales  and  as  one  is  dropping  down  the  range,  long 
before  Pereira  is  reached  the  sun  becomes  very  hot  and  only  the  lightest  kind  of  cloth- 


412     COLOMBIA:  A  COMMERCIAL  AND  INDUSTRIAL  HANDBOOK. 

ing  should  be  worn  by  the  traveler.  Khaki  riding  breeches  with  a  white  tunic  coat 
would  be  the  best  outfit,  with  a  cork  sun  helmet  or  large  Panama  hat  for  the  head  cov- 
ering and  a  large  white  linen  neckerchief  around  the  neck  to  prevent  sunburn.  The 
heat  along  the  road  is  very  ^eat,  and  in  the  ca.se  of  one  not  used  to  the  sun,  the  riding 
should  be  done  in  the  morning  (beginning  as  early  as  possible)  and  in  the  evening. 

Horses,  if  good  ones  can  be  secured,  are  better  than  mules  as  saddle  animals  after  one 
leaves  Pereira,  as  they  are  nearly  all ' '  gaited  "  and  make  better  time  on  the  level  ground 
than  the  mules.  A  good  plan  is  to  take  along  two  animals — a  good  mule  for  the  moun- 
tains, and  a  horse  for  the  trip  to  Cartago  and  Cali  from  Pereira.  Changing  saddle  ani- 
mals rests  one  and  keeps  the  animals  fresh  and  in  good  shape  for  hard  work  later  on. 
This  plan  is  customarily  followed  by  the  l)etter-class  people  of  the  country. 

In  order  to  obtain  good  animals  at  the  present  time,  it  is  very  necessary  to  start 
to  make  arrangements  in  advance  when  hired  mules  are  to  be  used.  Mules  and  horses 
are  scarce  and  command  high  prices,  and  the  charges  for  hire  are  in  proportion.  Also, 
there  are  very  few  good  saddle  animals  in  the  country,  and  these  are  mostly  the  prop- 
erty of  the  wealthy  people,  who  will  not  part  with  them — much  less  rent  them  out  to 
strangers  for  hard  trail  work.  A  very  good  plan  is  to  hire  a  good,  reliable  ' '  peon  "  (trail 
man,  guide,  packer)  several  days  in  advance  and  let  him  look  up  the  best  stock. 
These  "peons"  are  professional  trail  men  and  know  where  the  best  animals  are  to  be 
found.  A  very  good  man  in  Manizalea  is  Aparicio  Vasguez  (telegraphic  address, 
"Riovasquez,"  Manizales).  This  man  has  been  on  the  trails  for  19  years,  is  an  expe- 
rienced guide  and  packer,  and  has  taken  care  of  many  foreigners— making  trips  from 
Bogota  to  Caracas  on  mules,  etc.,  and  going  as  far  to  the  south  as  Pasto  and  even  Quito. 
Such  men  earn  $1.50  per  day  for  the  round  trip,  with  all  expenses  paid. 

STEAMER  SERVICE  ON  CAUCA  RIVER. 

During  the  seasons  of  high  water  in  the  Cauca  River,  the  trip  is  made  from  Manizales 
to  Carta«o  on  mule  back,  thence  down  to  the  Cauca  River  (a  20-minute  ride,  and  then 
up  the  Cauca  by  small  80-ton  river  steamer  of  the  usual  stern-wheel  type  such  as  is 
used  also  on  the  Upper  Magdalena  River  between  Beltran  and  Girardot.  The  trip 
takes  from  four  to  six  days,  according  to  the  stage  of  water  in  the  river  and  the  luck 
with  rocks,  sand  bars,  mud  banks,  etc. 

The  principal  company  is  the  Companfa  Fluvial  de  Trasportes  de  Manizales,  with 
headquarters  and  management  by  Alejandro  Angel  y  Cla.  in  Manizales.  Agencies 
are  maintained  in  Cali  and  at  the  various  river  ports  by  the  Uni6n  Comercial  del 
Pacifico,  as  well  as  by  Alejandro  Angel  y  Cla. 

River  steamers  land  at  the  head  of  navigation,  within  about  7  kilometers  (5  miles) 
of  Cali,  and  from  that  point  there  is  an  old  steam  tramway  service  to  Cali  proper. 

CONDITIONS  AT  CALI. 

Cali  is  situated  at  the  head  of  the  Cauca  VaUey,  between  two  ranges  of  high  hills. 
The  heat  is  intense  during  the  day,  but  the  nights  are  fairly  cool  at  all  times  and  a 
light  blanket  is  used  with  comfort  at  night.  There  are  few  mosquitoee,  and  light 
clothing  is  worn. 

The  worst  feature  is  the  wholly  unsatisfactory  accommodations,  and  the  traveler 
intending  to  stay  in  Cali  for  any  length  of  time  will  do  well  to  cultivate  the  acquain- 
tance of  some  foreigner  who  has  a  house  of  his  own,  where  the  conditions  existing  at 
the  hotels  can  be  escaped  and  some  d^;ree  of  sanitation  and  comfort  obtain^. 


Appendix  E.— MONOGRAPHS  AND  TRADE  LISTS  RELATING  TO 

COLOMBIA. 

DEPARTMENT  OF  COMMERCE  MONOGRAPHS. 

In  addition  to  the  information  contained  in  this  handbook,  it 
should  be  noted  that  a  number  of  monographs  previously  published 
by  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  include  reports 
with  regard  to  specific  phases  of  trade,  finance,  or  industry  in  Colom- 
bia. Tnese  are  mentioned  below.  The  pubhcations  are  for  sale, 
at  the  indicated  prices,  by  the  Superintendent  of  Documents,  Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  Washington,  D.  C,  and  by  the  district  and 
cooperative  offices  of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce. 

Banking  Opportunities  in  South  America,  by  William  H.  Lough.  Special  agents 
series  No.  106;  1915;  156  pages.     Price,  20  cents. 

Colombian  Markets  for  American  Furniture,  by  Harold  E,  Everley.  Special 
agents  series  No.  162;  1918;  34  pages.     Price,  5  cents. 

Construction  Materials  and  Machinery  in  Colombia,  by  W.  W.  Ewing.  Special 
agents  series  No.  160;  1918;  74  pages.     Price,  15  cents. 

Investments  in  Latin  America  and  the  British  West  Indies,  by  Frederic  M.  Halsey. 
Special  agents  series  No.  169;  1918;  544  pages.     Price,  50  cents. 

Lumber  Markets  of  the  West  and  North  Coasts  of  South  America,  by  R.  E.  Simmons. 
Special  agents  series  No.  117;  1916;  149  pages.     Price,  25  cents. 

Trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  World,  1914  and  1915  (fiscal  years).  Miscel- 
laneous series  No.  38;  1916;  247  pages.     Price,  20  cents. 

Trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  World,  1916  and  1917  (fiscal  years).  Miscel- 
laneous series  No.  63.  Part  1,  Imports;  1918;  112  pages;  price,  10  cents.  Part  2, 
Exports;  1918;  317  pages;  price,  20  cents. 

Trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  World,  1917  and  1918  (fiscal  years).  Miscel- 
laneous series  No.  78.  Part  1,  Imports;  1919;  112  pages;  price,  10  cents.  Part  2, 
Exports;  1919;  346  pages;  price,  25  cents. 

Trade  of  the  United  States  with  the  World,  1918  and  1919  (calendar  years).  Miscel- 
laneous series  No.  106.  Part  1,  Imports;  1920;  103  pages;  price,  10  cents.  Part  2, 
Exports;  1921;  456  pages;  price,  50  cents. 

One  should  mention  also  "Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the 
United  States,"  an  annual  publication  giving  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  all  the  countries  of  the  world,  as  well  as  the  Supplements 
to  the  daily  "Commerce  Reports,"  which  contain  the  annual  reports 
of  the  American, consuls.  CBeginning  with  1921,  the  annual  reports 
of  the  consuls  will  be  published,  not  in  Supplements  but  in  "Commerce 
Reports"  itself.) 

TRADE  LISTS  AVAILABLE.    • 

A  great  many  names  of  importers,  exporters,  dealers,  agents,  and 
other  persons  and  firms  connected  with  the  commercial  activity  of 
Colombia  were  prepared  by  the  writer  during  his  investigation  in  the 
Republic.  These  names,  together  with  others  submitted  by  American 
consular  officers,  are  now  on  file  in  the  Commercial  Intelligence  Sec- 
tion of  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce.  Numerous 
trade  lists  have  been  prepared  for  distribution,  arranged  on  the 
basis  of  the  commodities  nandled.  These  lists  show  the  character 
of  business  conducted  by  each  firm — that  is,  whether  wholesale, 

413 


414      COLOMBIA:    A    COMMERCIAL.  AND   INDUSTRIAL    HANDBOOK. 

retail,  commission  mercliant,  or  agent — and  they  are  starred,  to 
indicate  the  relative  size  of  each  firm  in  its  community,  by  one,  two, 
or  three  stars.  Information  is  also  available  concemmg  the  capital, 
organization,  and  commercial  activity  of  each  of  these  Colombian 
houses.  The  lists  are  furnished  to  American  business  men  upon 
application  to  the  Bureau  of  Foreign  and  Domestic  Commerce  or 
any  of  its  district  or  cooperative  offices.  The  inquirer  should  state 
definitely  the  kind  of  list  that  he  desires;  if  he  is  concerned  with  the 
market  lor  a  particular  commodity  or  class  of  articles,  he  should  be 
careful  to  make  a  specific  statement  to  that  effect. 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Advertising,  effective  methods 281, 358 

Agencies,  general  discussion 342 

resident  agents  recommended 240, 254, 268 

Agricultural  implements,  Bogota  market 248 

domestic  manufacture 235 

importation  into  Cartagena  district 221 

imports  by  articles 178 

market  requirements 175 

Agriculture,  Antioquia  Department 237 

Cartagena  district 218 

general  conditions 73 

Ahruaco  Indians,  mode  of  living 36 

Aliens,  protection  and  privileges 360 

Aloes,  production  for  commerce 80 

Amaga  Railway,  route  from  Medellin 236, 398 

Animal  products,  relative  position  in  export 

trade 152 

Antioquia  Department,  agricultural  devel- 
opment   155, 237 

area  and  population 34 

coffee  production 169 

educational  facilities 228 

finance  and  banking 229 

gold-mining  operations 97, 103 

manufacturing 232 

racial  characteristics  of  people 38, 227 

railways 236 

river  navigation ■. 237 

road  and  trail  building 305 

travel  notes 395 

Antioquia  Railway,  service  and  route.  236,396,398 

Area  of  Colombia  by  Departments 34 

Armenia,  coffee-shipping  center 260 

Army,  perpianent  organization 49 

Atlantico  Department,  area  and  population. .       34 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

school  facilities 199 

Atrato  River,  navigation 217 

Automobiles,  growth  of  market 308 

stage  line,  Cartagena  to  Turbaco 214 

Axes,  forms  most  suitable 176 

Baggage,  equipment  for  traveler 47 

handling  agencies  at  Medellin 402 

Bags  and  sacks,  imports 1^ 

manufacture  from  native  fiber 182, 234 

Balata,  shipments  to  United  States 88 

Balsams,  gathermg  and  exportation 79 

Bananas,  growing  in  Santa  Marta  district 190 

production  in  Cartagena  district 221 

Barranca  Bermeja,  oil  refinery 129 

wagon-road  construction 128, 201 

Banks,  BarranquiUa  facilities 200 

Bogota  facilities 243 

borrowing  by  Government  in  1919 61 

Bucaramanga  facilities 288 

Call  facilities 280 

Cartagena  facilities 226 


Page. 
Banks,  foreign  Institutions  facilitate  trade  at 

Medellin 230 

history    in    connection    with    national 

finances 56 

handling  biUs  of  exchange 337 

laws  governing 334 

loans  as  trade  factors 354 

loans  to  merchants 348 

lists  of  native  and  foreign  banks 333 

Manizales  institutions 258 

Santa  Marta  facilities 193 

See  also  Capital;  Finances. 

BarranquiUa,  banking  facilities 200 

building  of  new  suburb  by  American 

company 201 

conuaercial  district 197 

metal  exports 115 

public  utilities 201 

volume  of  import  business 208 

Bay  of  Cartagena,  navigation  difflculties 209 

BUls  of  lading,  requirements  and  regulations.'  375 

Boatbuilding,  activities 206 

Bogota,  commercial  district 240 

hotel  accommodations 406 

Bogota  district,  agricultural  development 248 

manufacturing 252 

Bolivar  Department,    agricultural    produc- 
tion   218 

area  and  population 34 

educational  facilities 2IJ 

transportation  facilities 214 

Bonds,  foreign  holdings 65 

internal  loan,  recentissue 60 

national,  accepted  in  payment  of  import 

duties 322 

See  alfo  Finances;  Loans. 

Bottled  goods,  packing  specifications 381 

Boyaca  Department,  agricultural  products. . .  155 

area  and  population 34 

cattle  industry 139- 

educational  facilities 242 

racial  characteristics  of  people 39 

Brands,  special  marking  of  cotton  goods  for 

large  dealers 364 

Brick  making.  Call  factory 276 

Bucaramanga,  commercial  district 285 

Buenaventura,  climate  and  rainfall 32 

gold  and  platimmi  exports  to  United 

States 116 

harbor  facilities 277 

Budget  for  1920 64 

Butter,  domestic  production 149 

Cabinet,  executive,  membership 48 

Cable  senice,  facilities  and  rates 21 

Cableway,  operation  in  Caldas  Department. .  263 

Cacao,  cultivation  and  production 160 

Santander  Department  production 289 

415 


416 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Caldas   Department,  agricultural  dovelop- 

ment 155,265 

area  and  population 34 

climate 256 

coffee  production 169 

mining  operations 267 

trail  oonstniction 305 

Caldas  Railway,  construction  from  Manizales  254 

Call,  commercial  district 268 

Canalization,  projects 205 

Candles,  production  at  Manizales 261 

Candy,  Bogota  manufacture 252 

Medellin  manufacture 233 

Canned  goods ,  packing  specifi  cations 38 1 

Capital,  banks,  native '. 333 

B(^ota  importing  houses 254 

influence  of  European  investments 15 

investment  in  cattle  raising 141 

investment  in  manufacturing ISO 

Manizales  banks 159 

See  alio  Banks. 

Caquetalntendcncy,  areaand  population 34 

Cargo,  damage  by  careless  handling 345 

Caribbean  coast,  agricultural  products 155 

Climate  and  rainfall 31 

petroleum  beds. . . , 123 

racial  characteristics  of  inhabitants 35 

Carpets,  weaving  at  Manizales 261 

Carmen,  tobacco  growing  in  \  icinity 220 

Catalogues,  special  care  in  preparing 357 

use  for  developing  parcel-post  business. . .  351 

Cartagena,  commercial  district 209 

harbors  and  docks . .  216 

metal  exports 115 

school  facilities 21 1 

shipments  to  United  States 226 

tonnage  tax  on  incoming  cargo 321 

Cattle,  Call  district 274 

Cauca  Valley 238 

export  statistics 144 

general  conditions  for  cattle  raising 138 

improvement  in  breeding 147, 250 

number  in  Colombia 143 

transport  on  Magdalena  River 207 

Cauca  Department,  agricultural  products 155 

area  and  population 34 

coffee  production 169 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

Cauca  River,  navigation 204, 262, 273 

Cauca  Valley,  agricultural  products 155 

coaldeposlts 110 

petroleum  prospecting 121 

racial  characteristics  of  people 39 

suitability  for  cattle  raising 139 

Cedar,  lumber  production  in  Cartagena  dis- 
trict   223 

supply  in  native  forests .^ 92 

Cement,  manufacturing  materials  in  Santa 

Marta  district 192 

packing  specifications 381 

Census,  population  of  Departments 34 

Cheese,  domestic  production 149 

Chemicals,  general  review  of  trade 368 

Chicle  gum,  production  and  exports  to  United 

States 85 

Santander  Department  supplies 283 


Page. 

Chinaware,  domestic  manufacture 233 

packing  specifications 381 

Choco  Intendency,  area  and  population 34 

mining  operations 100 

Chocolate,  domestic  manufacture 161 

factories  at  Bogota 252 

Cienaga,  importance  as  river  port 187 

Cigarettes,  manufacture 165 

Cinchona  bark,  decline  in  production 77 

Clay,  china,  deposits  utilized  for  porcelain 234 

Climate,  agricultural  zones 153 

BarranquiUa  district 198  . 

Bogota  district 212 

Call  district 269 

Cartagena  district 210 

discussion  by  zones 30 

effect  on  trade 33 

Manizales  district 256 

Medellin  district 226 

Santa  Martadistrict 187 

Santander  Department 286 

Clothing,  effect  of  climate  on  market 33 

equipment  for  traveler 46 

packing  specifications 382 

Coal,  Call  mines '   276 

deposits,  BarranquiUa  district 200 

Medellin  district 236 

Santa  Martadistrict 191 

extent  of  Colombian  fields 109 

quality  in  Bogota  district 251 

Coast-guard  service 50 

Coast  line,  length ,   15 

Coconuts,  industry  and  trade 82 

production  in  Cartagena  district 221 

Codesoflaw 51 

Coffee,  Cucuta  exports 292 

freight  rates  for  shipments  on  the  Magda- 
lena   207 

influence  of  crop  on  commercial  condi- 
tions   151,167,347 

Manizales  district  production 265 

Medellin  district  production 237 

purchases  by  United  States 172 

sacks  made  from  native  fiber 182 

Santander  Department  output 289 

shipments  from  Cartagena  to  Ignited  States  226 

yield  in  Bogota  district 249 

Coinage,  minting  of  gold  at  Medellin 229 

use  of  domestic  gold  production 56 

See  also  Money. 

Coins ,  American ,  in  circulation 18 

denominations  in  circulation 18 

gold  in  circulation 60 

See  ako  Currency. 

Colleges  and  high  schools 54, 199 

Colombia  Sugar  Co.,  operations    in    B(rtivar 

Department 218 

Commerce,  factors  affecting  United  States 

trade 17 

scliool  of  commerce  at  Bogota 54 

See  also  Exports;  Foreign  trade;  Imports. 

Commercial  districts,  list 185 

Commercial  practices,  general  discussion 341 

Commercial  travelers,  practices  to  be  ob- 
served   390 


INDEX. 


41^ 


Commission  houses,  position  in  trade 342 

See  aho  Trade  methods. 

Concessions,  oil  lands 126 

railway  construction,  laws  governing 298 

Condoto  River,  platinum  production 225 

Congress,  national,  membership 48 

Constitution,  provisions  of  national SO 

Construction,  future  active  work 350 

materials  exempt  from  import  duties 322 

Consuls,  foreign  officials  in  Colombia 50 

Copaiba  balsam,  exports  to  United  States. . .  79 

Copper,  deposits  not  worked 101 

Com,  increase  in  production 74 

Corozo  palm  nuts,  production .81 

Correspondence,  letters  to  American  consuls 

and  trade  coromissioners 355 

two-cent  postage  rate  from  United  States .  19 

use  of  Spanish 17 

Cotton,  growing  in  Cartagena  district 220 

increase  in  production 74 

production  in  Magdalena  Valley 199 

Cotton  goods,  domestic  manufacture 362 

imports  by  articles 366 

packing  specifications 385 

production  at  Barranquilla 200 

See  aho  Textiles. 

Cotton  mills,  new  plant  at  Manizales 261 

operations  at  MedeUin 232 

Courts,  national  system 49 

Crackers,  Bogota  bakeries 253 

manufacture  at  Medellin 233 

Credit,  facilities  of  American  banks  at  Cali. . .  282 

factor  in  United  States  trade 17 

general  discussion  of  terms 352 

information  to  assist  American  trade. .  334, 346 

situation  in  MedeUin 231 

terms  desired  at  Santa  Marta ^ 189 

terms  in  Cartagena  district 213 

Crops,  regional  distribution 153 

Cucuta,  commercial  district 290 

Cucuta  Railway,  operations 293 

Cundinamarca     Department,     agricultural 

products 155 

area  and  population 34 

coffee  production 169 

educational  facilities 242 

live-stock  industry 250 

racial  characteristics  of  people 39 

Currency,  amount  in  circulation 72 

gold  coins  in  Antioquia  Department 229 

history    in    connection    with    national 

finance 56 

monetary  system 17 

paper  money  in  circulation 18 

See  also  Coinage;  Coins. 

Customs  regulations 325 

Customs  tariff.    See  Tariff. 

Dairying,  domestic  industry 149 

De  Barco,  VirgUio,  petroleum  concession . .  125, 130 

De  Mares,  Roberto,  petroleum  concession 128 

Debt,  external,  general  statement 65 

internal,  general  statement 69 

obligations  by  classes 71 

Departments,   executive,    designation   and 

duties , 48 

37558°— 21 27 


Page. 
Departments,  geographic,  area  and  popula- 
tion   34 

Diplomatic  corps,  representatives  of  Colom- 
bia abroad  and  foreign  representatives  in 

Colombia ; 50 

Dique  River,  connection  between  Calamar 

and  coast 205 

navigation,  Magdalena  River  to  Carta- 
gena    214 

Diseases,  cattle,  serums  and  medicines  needed  143 
Divi-divi,    production    and    shipments    to 

United  States. 83 

See  also  Tanning  materials. 

Dorada  Extension  Railway,  operations 245 

Drafts,  practice  in  handling 338 

Dredging  proposed  at  mouth  of  Magdalena. . .  205 

Drugs  and  medicines,  general  review  of  trade .  368 

imports  by  countries 314 

Dry  goods,  imports  by  parcel  post 350 

packing  specifications 385 

Education,  Barranquilla  schools  and  colleges.  199 

Bogota  facilities 242 

Caldas  Department  schools 258 

Cali  schools  and  colleges ^ ^...  270 

Cartagena  facilities ;  i ; ,  .m  Ui . .  211 

Medellin  institutions 228 

national  public-school  system 52 

schoolbooks  exempt  from  customs  duty.  322 
See  aho  Schools. 

Electrical  goods,  purchasing  agencies 343 

Electric-light  plants,  equipment  at  Santa 

Marta 188 

Emeralds,  mining  in  Bogota  district 250 

Engines,  gasoline,  market  openings 177 

Exchange;  practice  in  handling  bills 337 

rate  for  United  States  dollar  since  1918. . .  17 
See  aho  Banks. 

Expenses,  national,  Increases 64 

Exports,  balsams 79 

Buenaventura  shipments 279 

Cartagena  shipments  to  United  States ...  226 

cattle  and  animal  products 146 

cliicle  gum 88 

coconuts 82,221 

coffee 168 

Cucuta  shipments,  by  articles 292 

destination  before  war 313 

forest  products  shipped  to  United  States 

from  Cartagena 223 

ipecac 78 

Uvehogs r 149 

minerals 113 

paper  products 372 

parcel-post  shipments 351 

rice  to  United  States 164 

relative  importance  of  products 152 

river  tax  on  shipments 329 

rubber 88 

tagua  nuts  (vegetable  ivory) 91 

tanning  materials 84 

tobacco 165 

Tumaco  shipments 284 

vegetable  products 158 

woods 1 98 

See  also  Foreign  trade. 


41B 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Feldspar,  deposits  near  Medellin 234 

Fees,  commercial  travelers 390 

consular  invoices 376 

Fibers,  malva,  cultivation  near  Barranquilla .  199 

native,  use  at  Manizales , 261 

utilization  of  native 182 

Finances,  funds  assigned  for  road  constniction  303 

history  of  national 56 

present  condition 58 

Valle  Department  budget 271 

Fines,  violation  of  customs  regulations 326 

Rsheries,  1  ndustry  at  Cienaga 191 

operations  near  Tumaco 283 

Fkxir  milling  at  Bogota 252 

Foodstuffs,  imports  by  countries 314 

Foreign  trade,  changes  brought  about  by  war.  16 

growth  since  1832 313 

parcel-post  imports,  by  countries 351 

position  of  United  States 320 

postwar  conditions 316 

prewar,  factors  controling 315 

statistics  for  1918 318 

See  also  Exports;  Imports. 

Forest  products 76-95 

exports  from  Cartagena  to  United  States.    223 

Freight  rates,  coflee  shipments  on  the  Magda- 

lena 207 

Fuel,  coal  deposits,  extent 109 

coal  supplies  near  Bogota 251 

use  of  petroleum  on  river  steamers 74, 206 

See  also  Coal;  Petroleum. 

Furniture,  packing  specifications 382 

Gasoline,  domestic  supply 310 

refinery  at  Barranca  Bermeja 129 

Gasoline  engines,  market  openings 177 

Geology,  gold-mining  districts 103 

oU  districts 123 

Giradot  Railway,  operations 245 

Glass,  packing  specifications 382 

Goajira  Peninsula,  area  and  population 34 

coal  deposits 110 

racial  characteristics  of  inhabitants 35 

Gold,  amount  of  coin  in  circulation 60 

Buenaventura  shipments 278 

coins  in  circulation  in  Caldas  Department .  259 

domestic  production  used  for  coinage 56 

export  statistics^ 97,114 

exportation  of  bullion  and  Its  effect 60 

principal  mining  companies 102 

production  In  Antioquia  Department...  229 

units  of  measure 19 

Government,  organization  and  administra- 
tion    48-52 

Governors  of  Departments,  appointment 51 

Gams,  chicle,  supplies  available 85 

possible  exploitation 80 

Harbors,  Buenaventura 277 

Cartagena 216 

dredging  propos(>d  at  mouth  of  Magdaleua  205 

Puerto  Colombia 202 

Santa  Marta 195 

Tumaco  facilities 282 

See  also  Shipping. 

Hardware,  packing  specifications 383 


Page. 

Hardwoods,  Imports  from  United  States 98 

supply  in  native  forests 92 

Harrows.    See  Agricultural  implements. 

Hats,  manufacture  of  Panama 181, 261 

packing  specifications 383 

Health,  care  to  be  observed  by  foreigners 45 

effects  of  climate 42 

Hides  and  skins,  Cucuta  exports '. 292 

exports  by  quantities  and  value 145 

shipments  to  United  States 147, 226 

supplyat  SantaMarta 189 

Highways.    See  Roads. 

HograLsing 148,250 

Hospitals,  American,  at  Santa  Marta 193 

maintenance  by  foreign  companies 43 

Hotels,  service  in  Barranquilla 202 

House  of  Representatives,  membership 48 

Huila  Department,  area  and  population 34 

educational  faciUties 242 

road  and  traU  construction 306 

Immigration,  sources 360 

Imports,  articles  of  greatest  importance 319 

Barranquilla  entrances 208 

Bogota,  estimated  amount 253 

Buenaventura  receipts 279 

butter  and  cheese 150 

chemicals,  by  articles 370 

clearance  through  castoms 325 

Cucuta,  receipts,  by  articles 292 

jute  manufactures 184 

live-stock  remedies 143 

lumber  from  United  States 93 

paper  and  paper  products 371 

parcel  post,  customs  regulations 328 

gro^vth  of  business 351 

rice 164 

river  tax  on  shipments 329 

sources  before  war 313 

textiles,  by  articles 366 

Tumaco  receipts 284 

See  aho  Foreign  trade:  Tariff. 

Indians,  decrease  in  number 40 

Indigo,  decline  in  shipments 92 

Industries,  domcst  ic  naanufacturing 180 

Insiu"ance,  mercantile  and  marine 339 

Internal  revenue,  ta.xes  on  certain  imported 

articles 329 

See  also  Revenues. 
Investments,  American,  Antioquia   Depart- 
ment   230 

opportunities  In  cattle  raising 141 

Invoices,  consular,  requirements 322, 325, 375 

Ipecac,  exports  to  United  States 78, 223 

Iron,  foundries  established  at  Medellin 234 

ore  deposits  in  Bogota  district 252 

Ivory  nuts,  exports  from  Cartagena  to  United 

"  States ■ 223 

production  and  trade 89 

Judiciary,  national  system 49 

Jute  manufactures,  imports 184 

Kaolin,  deposits  near  Gulf  of  Maracaibo 30 

KeroM-no,  refinery  at  Barraniu  Bermeja 129 

Knit  goods,  domestic  manuliicture 362 


INDEX. 


419 


Pa7e. 

La  Quiebra  Pass,  travel  facilities 397 

Labor  and  wages,  Barranquilla 199 

Cartagena,  cargo  handling 216 

Manizales  labor  supply 266 

Medellin  conditions 235 

oil-field  operations 136 

Santa  Marta  harbor  and  district 193, 195 

West  Indian  labor  for  banana  plantations  361 

Land,  methods  of  acquiring 156 

units  of  measure 18 

Language,  catalogues 351 

consular  invoices 376 

correspondence 17 

instructions  in  Spanish  for  operating  ma- 
chines    178 

Lard,  increase  in  production 74 

Laws,  commercial  and  civil  codes 51 

Leather,  tanning  at  Bogota 253 

Licenses,  commercial  travele  rs 390 

Lighting  plants,  small  generators  in  demand .  177 
Lignite,  reported  deposits  in  Goajira  Penin- 
sula   30 

Lirio  gum,  production  and  exports  to  United 

States 86 

Live  stock,  animals  for  breeding  exempt  from 

duty 322 

Caldas  Department  statistics 266 

conditions  for  cattle  raising 138 

Cundinamarca  production 250 

improvement  in  breeding 147 

serums  and  remedies  in  demand 143 

Living  conditions,  Bogota 242 

Cartagena 210 

general  review 40 

Manizales  and  district 257 

Medellin 228 

Llanos,  climate  andrainfall 33 

Loans,  liailure  of  foreign,  during  war 62 

foreign,  influence  on  trade 354 

interest  rates  at  Medellin 230 

internal,  recent  issue  of  bonds 60 

local  bank  advances  to  Government  in 

1919 61 

projwsed,  for  railway  construction 265 

Valle  Department  desires  foreign 271 

See  also  Banks  and  banking;  Finances. 
Locomotives  and  railway  equipment,   im- 
ports by  countries 314 

Lumber,  cedar  production  in  Cartagena  dis- 
trict   223 

domestic  production 92 

imports  from  United  States 93 

Machinery,  agricultural,  imports 178 

chocolate  prei)aring,  made  at  Medellin 252 

cotton  mill.  American  preferred 363 

packing  specifications 383 

road  building,  market 307 

See  also  Agricultural  implements. 

Machetes,  forms  generally  used 176 

Magdalena  Department,  agricultural  products  155 

area  and  population 34 

coffee  production ■  169 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

Magdalena  River,  dredging  at  mouth 205 

freight  and  passenger  traffic 207 

freight  rates  for  coffee  shipments 207 


Magdalena  River,  navigable  sections 203 

passenger  service 244, 394, 403, 405 

tax  on  goods  transported 324 

Magdalena  Valley,  climate  and  rainfall 32 

cotton  production 199 

Manizales,  commercial  district 255 

transportation  facilities 262 

Maps,  Barranquilla  district 197 

Bogota  district 241 

Bucaramanga  district 285 

Cali  district 2g» 

Cartagena  district 197 

Cucuta  district 291 

Medellin  district 227 

Santa  Marta  district 197 

Mahogany,  exports  to  United  States 93 

Malaria,  efforts  to  combat 43 

Mangrove  bark,  production  and  exports  to 

United  States 83 

Manufactures,  relative  position  in  export 

trade 152 

Manufacturing,  Antioquia  Department 232 

Barranquilla  industrial  plants .- . . .  200 

Bogota  district 252 

Cali  district 275 

Manizales  factories 261 

Santa  Marta 190 

statistics  of  industries ISO 

Marking,  care  necessary 3S7 

textUe  samples .347 

Martinez,  Diego,  petroleum  concession 126 

Matches,  factory  at  Manizales 261 

Meat  packing,  American  company  to  estab- 
lish industry 144 

Measures.   Sec  Weights  and  measures. 

Medellin,  commercial  district 226 

industrial  development 232 

Medicines,  demand  in  cattle  industry 143 

general  review  of  trade 368 

natural  products 76 

Mercantile  Bank  of  the  Americas,  branches 

in  Colombia 244 

Meta  Intendency,  area  and  population 34 

Metals,  imports  by  countries 314 

Metric  system,  legal  standard U 

Military  force,  national  organization 49 

Minerals,  deposits  in  Santa  Marta  district 192 

export  statistics 113 

relative  position  in  export  trade 152 

See  also  Gold;  Platinum. 
Mining,  admission  of  supplies  at  reduced  rates 

of  duty 237 

Caldas  Department 267 

coal,  Bogota  region 251 

emerald  production 250 

industry  in  Medellin  district 239 

laws  and  decrees 100, 116 

methods  and  equipment 73 

operation  sin  principal  regions 97 

platinum  production lOS 

principal  gold-mining  companies 102 

salt,  Bogota  district 251 

titles  to  oil  lands 131 

See  also  Coal;  Petroleum. 

Mint,  national,  operations  at  Medellin 229 

Mirrors,  packing  specifications 382 


420 


INDEX. 


Page. 

Money,  amount  in  ciirulation 72 

basis  of  system 17 

fnoreased  circulation  in  Caldas  Depart- 
ment   250 

paper,  issues  by  Government  and  banks.  18,56 

Monopolies,  Government 51 

Mosquitoes,  protective  measures  to  be  taken.  45 

Motor  cj'cles,  market 310 

Motor  trucks,  increased  use 309 

Mountains,  effect  on  commerce 2 

•y  See  ai«o  Topography. 

Narino  Department,  agricultural  products...  155 

area  and  population 34 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

Naturalization,  requirements  for  dtizensbip.  360 

Navy,  vessels  in  service 50 

Newspapers,  general  character 55 

publications  at  CaU 281 

Norte  de  Santander  Department,  area  and 

population 34 

Northern  Railway,  operations 247 

Ocana,  center  for  coffee  and  cacao 290 

Office  supplies,  imports 371 

purchasing  agencies 343 

Oil  fields.    See  Petroleum. 

Oilseeds,  native  kinds 81 

Pacific  coast,  agricultural  products lo^ 

gold  dredging  operations 99 

racial  characteristics  of  inhabitants 38 

Pacific  Railway,  operations 272 

Packing,  careless  handling  by  steamships 345 

chemicals 369 

effect  on  import  duties 323 

general  statement  of  requirements 378 

machinery  shipments 178 

methods  successfully  used 254 

mule  transport 388 

parcel-post  shipments 352 

selection  of  containers 346 

textiles 364, 368 

Palm  kernels,  natural  production 81 

Pamplona,  coffee  district  near  Cucuta. 290 

Panama-hat  manufacture 181, 261 

Paper  and  paper  products,  general  review  of 

market 371 

packing  specifications 384 

purchasing  agencies 343 

Patents,  protection  given  foreign 331 

Passport  requirements 390 

Parcel  i)ost,  assessment  of  duties 321 

customs  regulations  for  admission 328 

factor  in  import  trade 319 

means  of  increasing  trade 350 

service  with  United  States 20 

use  by  Call  merchants 280 

See  alto  I'ostage. 

Passengers,  transport  on  Magdalena  River. . .  207 

Pasture  land,  Vallc  Department 274 

Penalties,  frauds  or  mistakes  under  customs 

regulations 328 

Periodicals,  character 55 

Petroleum,  difficulties  of  prospecting 122 

early  prospecting 120 

fuel  on  river  steamers 74 


Page. 

Petroleum,  principal  districts 121 

prospecting  in  region  of  Puerto  Colom- 
bia   200,224 

recent  legLslatlon 134 

refinery  at  Barranca  Bermeja 129 

summary  of  development  prospects 135 

titles  to  oil  lands 131 

Physicians,  importance  of  services  In  oil 

development 137 

Pilferage,  precautions  against 352 

Pine,  imports  from  United  States 93 

Pipe  lines,  construction  from  oil  well  to  Bar- 
ranca Bermeja 128 

property    of    International    Petroleum 
Co 129,130 

Pitaflber,  quality  of  native 183 

Platinum,  Buenaventura  shipments 278 

export  statistics 114 

extension  of  mining 75 

foreign  dredging  companies 108 

mining  operations 105 

prices  since  1906 109 

production  in  Cart^ena  district 224 

shipments  to  United  States 109 

Plows.    See  Agricult  ural  implemen  t  s. 

Population,  Antioqula  Department,  racial 

characteristics 227 

Barranquilla,  nationalities 198 

Bogota  district,  racial  characteristics 242 

Caidas  Department ,  racial  characteristics.  257 

Cartagena  district,  characteristics 210 

statistics  by  Departments 34 

Porcelain,  domestic  manufacture 233 

packing  specifications 381 

Postage,  domestic  rates < 20 

full  payment  Important 357 

rates  to  and  from  United  States 19 

See  also  Parcel  post. 

Pot  terj- ,  manufact  ure  from  domestic  clay. ...  233 

packing  specifications 381 

Powers  of  attorney,  certification  required 390 

Power  plant,  station  near  Bogota 243 

Precious     metals.    See     Gold;     Platinum; 
Silver. 

President,  method  of  electing 48 

Providencia  Island,  administration  and  in- 
habitants   35 

Public  utihties,  Barranquilla 201 

Bogota 243 

Cucuta 290 

Santa  Marta 188 

Publications,  bulletin  of  Cali  Chamber  of 

Commerce 281 

Department  of  Commerce  monographs  on 

Colombia 413 

newspapers  and  books  sent  by  mail, 

maximum  weight 19 

schoolbooks  admitted  free  of  duty 322 

statistical    data    gathered    by    Caldas 

Department 258 

Puerto  Berrio,  importance  as  tIvbt  port  for 

MedcUin 231 

Puerto  Colombia,  harbor  facilities 202 

oil  prospects  in  vicinity 200, 224 

Quebracho  wood 83 

Quindio,  cofleo-produclng  district 260, 260 

Quinine,  decline  of  production 77 


♦INDEX. 


421 


Page. 

Races,  mixture  in  population 35 

Racial  characteristics,  influence  on  commerce.  40 

Railways,  Antioquia  Department 236 

aspects  of  national  problem 295 

Bolivar  Department 215 

Caldas  Railway  construction 264 

construction  cost-s 297 

construction  from  Bogota  to  coast 244 

construction  in  Tolima  Department 248 

construction  specifications  prescribed  by 

law 298 

Cucuta  to  Zulia  River 293 

equipment  admitted  free  of  duty 322 

Pacific  coast  to  Bogota,  plans  to  complete 

system 296 

Pacific  Railway,  Call  to  Buenaventura. .  272 

projects  in  Santander  Department 288 

Santa  Marta  Railway 196 

service  between  Puerto  Colombia  and 

Barranquilla 202 

statistics  of  operation  for  all  lines 300 

See  also  Transportation. 

Rainfall,  Barranquilla  district 198 

Bogota  district 241 

Cartagena  district 210 

Manizales  district 256 

Santa  Marta  district 187 

Resins,  possible  exploitation 80 

Revenues,  Antioquia  Department 230 

Caldas  Department 265 

customs  receipts  at  Buenaventura 279 

customs  receipts  in  recent  years 318 

national,  1910tol918 63 

receipts  from  forests 94 

receipts  from  road  tolls 306 

sources  of  nationaL 51 

taxes  for  river  improvement 205 

Valle  Department 271 

See  aho  Finances;  Tariff;  Taxes. 

Rice,  Antioquia  production 238 

cultivation  and  production 74, 162 

production  in  Cartagena  district 219 

Rio  Cesar,  transportation  facilities 204 

River  systems 27 

River  tax,  charges  against  imports  and  ex- 
ports transported  by  river 329 

Rivers,  transportation  on  Magdalena  and 

tributaries 203,207 

travel  equipment  for  passengers 395 

Roads,  Call  district 274 

construction  costs 302 

construction  to  oil  refinery  at  Barranca 

Bermeja 128,204 

Cucuta  routes  projected 293 

Department  of  Bolivar,  construction 214 

funds  assigned  for  si)ecified  routes 303 

national  highways,  list 301 

recent  legislation .  302 

teclmical  conditions  of  construction 302 

Rubber,  exports  from  Cartagena  to  United 

States 223 

importance  of  industry 87 

Sabana  Railvv^ay,  operations 246 

Sacks  and  bags,  imports 184 

manufacture  from  native  fiber 182 


Page. 

Salesmen,  knowledge  of  Spanish  necessary. .  17 

traveling  outfit 46 

Salt,  consumption  tax 330 

production  from  mines 251 

Samples,  admission  free  of  duty 328 

instructions  for  commercial  travelers 390 

marking  of  textiles 347,358 

San  Andres  Island,  administration  and  in- 
habitants   36 

San  Jorge  River,  transportation  facilities 204 

Sanitation 42 

Santa  Marta,  commercial  center 187 

harbor  facilities 195 

import  trade,  character 189 

public  utilities 188 

sanitary  measures 43 

Santa  Marta  Railway,  service  and  equipment  196 

Santander  Department,  agricultural  products  1 55 

area  and  population 34,286 

coffee  production 169 

petroleum  prospecting 125 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

Sarsaparilla  root,  gathering 78 

Sawmills,  limited  number 92 

School  of  Mines,  attendance 228 

Schools,  attendance  in  primary 64 

primary  schools  in  Barranquilla 199 

system  of  public 52 

See  also  Education. 

Senate,  mem1>ers  and  method  of  choosing 48 

Sewerage  systems,  construction  and  plans. . .  46 
Sewing  machines,  .celling  organization   for 

American 343 

Shipping,  Buenaventura  harbor  facilities 277 

Cartagena  harbor  and  dock.s 216 

charges  against  vessels 324 

clearance  of  goods  through  customs 325 

fluvial  tax  for  river  improvement 206 

improved  facilities  favor  American  trade.  345 

marine  insurance  companies 339 

Puerto  Colombia  harbor  facilities 202 

Santa  Marta  harbor  facilities 195 

steamship  lines  i  rom  United  States 375 

steamship  service  at  Cartagena 218 

Tumaco  harbor  facilities 283 

See  aha  Rivers;  Steamboats;  TranspcHta- 
tion. 

Shoes,  domestic  manufacture,  Bogota 263 

packing  specifications 385 

Silk,  culture  experiments  at  Bocaramanga. ..  289 

packing  specifications 385 

Silver,  export  statistics 97,114 

Sinu  Uiver,  navigation 217 

petroleum  prospecting 124 

Skins.    See  Hides  and  skins. 

Soap,  progress  in  production  at  Bogota 253 

Southern  Railway,  operations 247 

Stamp  tax,  bank  drafts 338 

bills  of  lading  and  consular  invoices 375 

shipping  documents 324 

States.    See  Departments. 

Stationery,  market 371 

Steamboats,   companies   operating  on   the 

•Magdalena 206 

typo  on  Magdalena  River 203, 394 

See  also  Rivers. 


422 


INDEX. 


Page. 
Steamship   service,    Puerto    Colombia   and 

United  States  ports 202 

sailing  distances  from  Cartagena 15 

time  to  United  States  ports 23 

See  also  Shipping;  Transportation. 

Storage  of  grain,  damage  by  weevil 175 

Street  paving,  needs  of  Barranquilla 201 

Strikes,  Caribbean  coast  cities,  in  1918 222 

Subsidies,  railway  construction,  laws  govern- 
ing   298 

Sec  alio  Concessions. 

Sugar,  exports  of  refined 154 

production,  Call  district 275 

Cartagena  district 218 

Cauca  Valley 155 

Medellin  district 238 

Surtaxes  on  imports 322 

S3rrians,  activities  in  business 36, 212 

Tagua  nuts  (vegetable  ivory),  exports  from 

Cartagena  to  United  States 223 

production  and  trade. 89 

Tanneries,  establishment  at  Bogota 253 

Tanning  materials,  export?  from  Cartagena  to 

United  States 223 

production  and  exports 83 

Tariff,  advertising  matter,  duties 359 

articles  admitted  free  of  duty 322 

customs  fees  and  charges 323 

duties  assessed  on  gross  weight 254 

duties  collected  in  recent  years 318 

samples,  customs  regulations  for  admis- 
sion   391 

Taxation,  national  sources 51 

See  also  Revenues. 

Taxes ,  fl  u  vial  taxes  for  river  improvement ...  206 
internal    revenue    assessed    on    certain 

imports 329 

mining  property 119 

resident  aliens 360 

stamps  on  shipping  documents 324 

tonnage  tax  on  merchandise  transported 

by  river 329 

See  also  Revenues;  Tariff. 

Telegraph  service,  facilities  and  rates 21 

Temperature,  variation  by  zones 30 

Textiles,  expansion  of  industry 73 

general  review  of  market 362 

imports  by  articles 367 

imports  by  countries 314 

manufacturing  plants  and  capital  in  vested  180 

packing  specifications 385 

purchasing  agencies 342 

samples,  marking 347 

service  of  samples 357 

woolen  manufacture  at  Bogota 253 

See  alto  Cotton  goods. 

Timber,  resources  not  exploited 92 

suppliesin  ."-'antaMarta district 192 

Tobacco,  Caldas  Department  production 267 

cultivation  and  i)roduction 164, 220 

Santander  Department  cultivation  and 

manufacture 280 

ToUet  articles,  packing  specifications 384 

Tolima  Department,  agriculi  ural  products. . .  155 

area  and  population 34 


Page. 

Tolima  Dejmrtment,  coffee  production 169- 

educational  facilities 242 

road  and  trail  construction 306 

Tolima  Railway,  operations 247 

Tolu  balsam,  exports  to  United  States 79 

Tonnage  tax,  rate 324 

Tools,  agricultural,  market  requirements 176 

See  also  Agricultural  implements. 

Topography,  Bogota  district 241 

Caldas  Department 256 

Call  district 268 

Cartagena  district 209 

effect  on  cattle  raising 139 

influence  on  commerce 24 

Medellin  district 226 

oil  districts 123 

Santander  Department 285 

Tractors,  market  in  coast  regions 177 

Trade  centers,  list  of  commercial  districts 185 

Trade  development,  Santa  Marta  possibili- 
ties   194 

Trade  information,  sources  in  United  States.  347 
Trade-marks,  regulations  governing  registra- 
tion   331 

Trade  methods,  American  and  European 

compared 255 

Bucaramanga  district 287 

Cartagena  district 212 

commission  houses 254,  315, 342 

distribution  from  Medellin 240 

general  discussion 341 

hides  and  skins 147 

Manizales  district 268 

protection  of  wholesale  houses 348 

sources  of  trade  information 355 

textile  trade 368 

Trails.    See  Roads. 

Transportation,  Bucaramanga  district 287 

cableway  in  Caldas  Department 263 

Call  district 273 

Bogota  to  coast 244 

Cauca  River  facilities 20^ 

coffee  from  interior 169 

Cucuta  to  ocean 293 

dredging  of  Magdalena  River 205 

facilities  in  Cartagena  district 214 

freight  rates  on  Magdalena  River 207 

insiu-ance  for  inland  shipments 339 

Magdalena  River  facilities 203 

Manizales  facilities 262 

Medellin  district 231 

methods  in  Santa  Marta  district 194 

mule  transport  to  interior 388 

review  of  national  problem 295 

river  navigation  in  Antioqula  Depart- 
ment   237 

Santa  Marta  Railway 196 

steamship  service  at  Cartagena 218 

traffic  on  Magdalena  River 207 

Tumaco  to  interior 283 

Sec  also  Railways;  Rivers;  Shipping. 

Travel,  outfit  to  be  carried 46 

Travel  notes,  Antioquia  Department 39& 

Caribbean  coast  to  Puerto  Berrio 394 

costs  estimated 392 


INDEX. 


423 


Travel  notes,  Magdalena  River  to  Manizales.  407 

Manizales  to  Cali 409 

Medellin  to  Bogota 401 

Santa  Marta  to  Barranquilla 393 

Tropical  Oil  Co.,  petroleum  exploration 128 

Tumaco,  banking  facilities  needed 336 

commercial  district 282 

import  duties  reduced 322 

metal  exports 116 

Tuberculosis,  prevalence  and  means  for  pre- 
vention    47 

Typhoid    fever,    precautions    necessary    to 

avoid 45 

United  Fruit  Co.,  operations  at  Santa  Marta.  190 

sanitary  service 43 

wireless  service 21 

University  of  Antioquia,  enrollment 228 

University  of  Bogota,  enrollment 242 

Universities,  departmental  and  national 54 

Valle  Department,  area  and  population 34, 270 

cattle  raising 274 

climate  and  rainfall 269 

coffee  production 169 

road  and  trail  construction 305 

Vegetable  ivory,  production  and  trade 89 

Vegetable  products,  freight  rates  reduced  on 

Magdalena  River 208 

Vessels,  charges  on  entering  port 324 

manifest  of  cargo 326 

Volcanoes,  active 26 


Wages,  laborers  in  oil  fields 136 

See  also  Labor  and  wages. 

Warehouses,  charges  for  customs  storage 324 

storage  facilities  at  Cartagena 216 

Watches,  selling  of  American 355 

Water  power,  development  in  Santa  Marta 

district 193 

station  near  Bogota 243 

Water  transportation .    See  Rivers;  Shipping; 
Steamboats;  Transportation. 

Waxes,  vegetable,  possible  exploitation 80 

Weevil ,  damage  t  o  grain 175 

Weights  and  measures,  metric  system  in 

catalogues 351 

units  in  common  use 18 

Wharves,  construction  proposed  at  Barran- 
quilla   205 

Wheat,  increase  in  production 74 

production  and  prices  in  Bogota  district.  249 

Wireless  service 21 

Woolen  fabrics,  factories  at  Bogota 253 

imports  in  1916 366,367 

World  War,  changes  in  direction  of  foreign 

trade 16 

Yam,  packing  specifications 386 

Yellow  fever,  menace  on  Caribbean  coast ....  210 

precautions  taken  to  suppress 44 

Zapote  trees,  abundant  growth 85 

Zipiquira  salt  mine 251 

Zulia  River,  transportation  for  Cucuta  com- 
merce   293 


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